
Class /A/ (^7 
Book_i" ^^ 




CopightN". 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




THE HOUSEKEEPER 



By Gerard Douw 



EDITOR 
FEED D. CEAWSHAW, M.E. 

PROFESSOU OF MANT'AL ARTS THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



THE 

SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



A Textbook in Home Economics 



BY 

EMMA E. PIRIE 

niRECTOR DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS 



SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 

CHICAGO NEW YORK 






Copyright, 1915, 

BY 

Scott, Foresman and Company 



^ 9a 

OCT -21915 

g)CI.A410811 



PREFACE 

This book is intended for use in the Home Economics classes 
of the grammar and lower high school grades, both in cities and 
in rural schools. Technical terms have been used sparingly 
because where the time devoted to Home Economics is limited, as 
it is in most schools of this grade, the acquirement of a special 
vocabulary is not practicable. Few experiments depending on 
a knowledge of chemistry are included, as pupils are not yet 
familiar with this subject. Little stress is laid on experi- 
mental cooking, because in the author's judgment the aim of 
elementary teaching in food preparation should be the devel- 
opment of the underlying science, including the physiological 
facts of food and digestion, and the effect of heat upon food. 
In addition, the course should secure for the pupil a fair degree 
of skill in preparing and serving foods. 

A large number of supplementary recipes are given in the 
Appendix. It is hoped that this feature will not only offer the 
teacher a wide range of choice in the preparation of her course 
of work, but will also tend to make the book a valuable cook 
book for the home kitchen, after its service as a school text has 
been rendered. If the hygienic principles of the school cooking 
lesson can thus be brought into closer relationship to their 
Jater use in the home, a very real advantage will be gained. 

The teaching in Home Economics should center about the 
home. It should strive to give girls a realization of the impor- 
tance of home making in the development of the individual, and 
of the great part the home plays in the formation of the citizen- 
ship of the community and of the nation. Great stress is laid on 
hygiene and sanitation, including the study of bacteria and 
hygienic methods of cleaning. These are great economic factors, 
as the cost of' living is much increased by illness due to pre- 

5 



g PREFACE 

veritable disease. In general, unhygienic methods of food prepa- 
ration are omitted; when given, their evil effects are explained. 

The care and feeding of children, including the school lunch- 
eon, are emphasized because of the vital importance of these 
matters on the future of the individual. The study of the school 
luncheon touches the self interest of the pupils and vitalizes 
the whole subject of food preparation. The care and feeding 
of the child are given prominence not only because of their value 
to the home maker of the future, but because of the emphasis 
they give to the importance of proper nutrition. The cost of 
material is everywhere stressed since it is as great a factor in 
successful household management as it is in any other business. 

The author wishes to express her gratitude for aid in pre- 
paring the manuscript to Miss Sarah Gibbs, Miss Nannie Daw- 
son, and Prof. Bernard Mackensen of the San Antonio High 
School; to Miss Mildred McKnight and Miss Grace Umberger 
for notes on nursing; to Miss Helen Devine, of San Antonio, 
and Miss Daisy Kugel, of Stout Institute, Menominee, Wiscon- 
sin, for helpful criticism ; to Miss Otela Kelly and Mrs. Frank 
Clarkson for drawings; to Prof. Louis D. Hall, of the Univer- 
sity of Illinois, for valuable tables and drawings ; to Prof. Carl 
Hartman, of the University of Texas, for the preparation of the 
chapter on Food and Digestion, and to Dr. Clifford Grulee, of 
Chicago, for diets for the infant. 

Grateful acknowledgment is also made to Good Housekeeping 
for permission to use the illustrations found on pages 128 and 
165 ; to the Washburn-Crosby Co., for the diagram on page 207 ; 
and to Prof L. D. Hall and Prof. A. D. Emmett, as well as to 
the University of Illinois, for the meat illustrations, pages 158, 
164, 166, 168, and 172, from Bulletin No. 158, University of Il- 
linois Agricultural Experiment Station. 

San Antonio, Texas. 
September 20, 1915. 



DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS 

The subjects given in this book are arranged so as to give 
the home the prominence to which it is entitled. The order in 
which the topics are to be studied will depend on the age and 
intelligence of the pupils. It may not be desirable to study at 
first the entire chapter on the home, but it is well to introduce 
the subject by a discussion of the home and its functions even if 
the class must pass directly to the preparation of foods. 

The best methods of preparing foods and arranging menus 
cannot be developed unless the pupils possess an elementary 
knowledge of the digestive processes ; to this end the chapter on 
Food and Digestion should be studied first, unless the regular 
school course of study has included physiology. While the text 
is planned to cover two years of work, it may easily be adapted 
to a shorter period. 

For a short course in food preparation it Avould be well to 
follow the order given in the text, a few^ type dishes being 
selected and that part of the theory which applies to them being 
assigned for study. The teacher may have the class prepare 
two dishes at the same lesson, using one as the main topic and 
the other as a supplement. For example, tea and toast may 
be prepared in the lesson on water. In this case, the making 
of tea would be the study subject, and the making of toast 
Avould be developed from dictation. The effect of heat upon 
starches would be left for a later lesson. In general, the matter 
in large type should be read and discussed and the experiments 
performed before the practical cooking lesson is taken up. In 
such chapters as that on meat, however, v^here there are many 
points to be covered, it is well to divide the discussion, cover- 
ing first the points most closely connected with some simple 
cooking process, following this by the experiment or experi- 

7 



3 TO TEACHERS 

ments relating to the process, and then taking up the practical 
cooking. In this way the interest of the pupil will be sustained. 

A good course would include the preliminary lessons on 
the home, and on food and digestion, followed by a study of 
the kitchen and its equipment. At this point the actual cook- 
ing lessons might begin, first with a study of water, followed 
by the preparation of the beverage most used by the pupils ; 
next, the study of fruit, and the cooking of some season- 
able fruit; then the study and cooking of cereals. Here the 
breakfast menu might be discussed, followed by table setting, 
the cooking of eggs, and the serving of breakfast. The care of 
the dining room might then be introduced (Chapter I, Part One). 
After this the cost of the me-al should be estimated. 

The series of type lessons leading to the preparation and 
serving of luncheon or dinner should then be continued. The 
subjects in order might well include the preparation of potatoes 
and rice, the study of milk in cream soups, the cooking of a meat, 
a quick bread, vegetables, and a simple dessert. Cup custard, 
for example, would give a review of the milk and egg lessons. 
After this, fat in salad dressing and sugar in desserts may be 
studied. The preparation and serving of a company luncheon 
or dinner may then be given. As a further training on the social 
side, afternoon tea could be served to the faculty. Following 
this, a short course on the care and feeding of children and in- 
valids should be given. Laundering may be taught at the end 
of the course, or incidentally when the care of dish towels, 
cooking aprons, and table linen is discussed. 

For the convenience of teachers in planning their classwork, 
the type recipes of greatest importance are starred throughout 
the text. These recipes contain applications of all the funda- 
mental principles taught in the various chapters. Teachers 
who have time will do well to supplement this list by selecting 
from the other recipes of the text, those best adapted to their 
local requirements. Attention is called in this connection to 
the large number of supplementary recipes contained in the 
Appendix. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface 5 

Directions to Teachers 7 

PART ONE 

THE HOME AND ITS CARE 

CHAPTEK I 

The Home 

The House — The Furnishings — The Eooms of the House 13 

CHAPTER II 

Household Sanitation 

The Care of the House 28 

PART TWO 
THE SELECTION, PREPARATION, AND SERVING OF FOOD 

CHAPTER I 

Food and Digestion 

Why We Need Food — The Classes of Foods and Their Uses in the Body 

— Outline of Classes of Foods — The Fuel Value of Food — Chemical 

Experiments — The Digestive Organs — How and Where Digestion 

Takes Place — The Hygiene of Digestion 39 

CHAPTER II 
General Rules for the Kitchen 
Care of Equipment — Directions for Measuring — Tables of Measures — 
The Fire — The Fireless Cooker — A List of Rules for the Kitchen — 
General Directions 58 

CHAPTER III 

Water and Prepared Beverages 

Water as a Beverage — Water in Cooking— Tea— Coffee— Cold Beverages 71 

9 



10 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

CHAPTER IV 
Composition of Fkuits page 
Uneooked Fruits — Cooked Fruits 81 

CHAPTER V 
Vegetables 
Compositiou of Vegetables — Canned Vegetables — White Potatoes^ — Sweet 
Potatoes — Reheated Potatoes — Green Vegetables — Dried Peas and 
Beans — Vegetable Cream Soups — Vegetable Salads 89 

CHAPTER VI 

Canning and Preserving Fruits and Vegetables: Making Jellies 
Canning — Preserving — Making Jelly 108 

CHAPTER VII 

Starches 
Composition of Cereals — Effect of Cooking on Starches — The Making of 
White Sauce — The Cereals — Cooking Cereals in the Double Boiler- 
Cooking Cereals Directly Over the Fire — Using Left-over Cereals — 
Rice — Macaroni and Other Pastes 116 

CHAPTER VIII 

Eggs 
Preservation of Eggs — Cooking Eggs — Using Left-over Egg> 127 

CHAPTER IX 
Milk 
Composition of Milk and Milk Products — Milk as a Carrier of Disease — 
The Digestion of Milk — The Cost and Food Value Compared 136 

CHAPTER X 

Milk Products 

Cream — Butter — Cheese 143 

CHAPTER XI 

Meat 
Composition of Edible Parts of Meat and Fish — Structure of Meat — 
Composition of Meat — Use and Digestibility of Meat — The Preser- 
vation of Meat — Food Value and Cost Compared — Selecting Meat — 
Cuts of Meat — Quick Cooking Cuts — Moderately Quick Cooking 
Meats — Slow Cooking Meats — Cooking Meats — Broiling Meats — 
Roasting or Baking Meats — Boiling Meats — Stewing and Braising 
Meats — Soups and Broths — Left-over Meats 147 



CONTENTS 11 

CHAPTEK XII 

Poultry and Fish page 

Poultry — Methods of Cooking Chicken — Methods of Cooking Turkey — 
Cooking Other Fowl — Fish 178 

CHAPTEK XIII 

Breads and Leavening Agents 

Baking Powder and Other Leavening Agents — Quick Breads 195 

CHAPTER XIV 

Breads (Continued). Yeast Bread 
Flour — Cornmeal — Yeast — General Rules for Bread Making — Scale for 
Grading Bread — Uses of Stale Bread — Sandwiches -07 

CHAPTER XV 
Fats and Oils 
Composition of Fats — Fried Foods — Pastry — Emulsification of Fats — 
Nuts 222 

CHAPTER XVI 

Sugar 
Composition of Sugar — Candy — Temperatures for Cooking Sugar — Cake 
Frostiugs 235 

CHAPTER XVII 

Cakes and Cake Making 

Leavening Agents in Cakes — Cakes Without Butter 242 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Simple Desserts 

The Choice of Desserts — Recipes 251 

CHAPTER XIX 
Gelatin and Frozen Desserts 
Iiii])ortant Points in Making Gelatin Jellies — Frozen Desserts — Freezing 
Mixture — Proportions of Salt and Ice — Freezing Ice Cream — 
Molding Ice Cream 257 

CHAPTER XX 
Rules of Etiquette and Serving 
Table Etiquette — Setting and Decorating the Table — A Few General 
Rules — Formal Service 265 



12 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

CHAPTEE XXI 

Making Menus page 
Writing Menus — Menus for Special Occasions — Serving for Special Occa- 
sions 278 

CHAPTER XXII 
Household Management 
The Part of the Housekeeper — The Budget — Form for Family Budget — 
Household Accounts — Marketing — Pure Foods 292 

PART THREE 
CARE AND FEEDING OF CHILDREN AND INVALIDS 

CHAPTER I 
Taking Care of the Baby 7 301 

CHAPTER II 
Diet of the Child 
Preparation of Food — Examples of Child's Diet — Diet for Second Year 
— Feeding an Older Child — The School Luncheon 307 

CHAPTER III 
Home Nursing 
The Care of the Sick — Invalid Cookery — Invalid Diets — Recipes for In- 
valids 319 

PART FOUR 
LAUNDERING 

CHAPTER I 
Removing Stains from Washable Goods — Bleaching: Setting and Bright- 
ening Colors 335 

APPENDIX 

Supplementary Recipes 347 

Breads — Butter — Cakes — Candies — Cream — Cheese — Chicken — Coffee 
— Croquettes — Desserts — Eggs — Fish — Fruits — Hominy — Jellies 
— Meat — Oysters — Punch — Salads^ — Sandwiches — Sauce — Soups 
— Stuffings — Tea — A^egetables (canned) — Vegetables — Wheat. 

Utensils for Home Kitchen 385 

Forms for Household Accounts 388 

Bibliography . 390 

Index 393 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



PART ONE 
THE HOME AND ITS CARE 



CHAPTER I 

THE HOME 

The very first liome the woiid ever knew was made by some 
woman as a safe place for her little child. It may have been 
only a rude cave ^\hich slie had made comfortable with soft 
grasses or the skins of animals, but its purj^ose was the same as 
that of the home of today ; tliat is, it Avas a place where the 
family could find comfort and companionship and where the 
children could grow and develop. 

To fulfill its dut}' properly a home must have an atmosphere 
of order, beauty, contentment, hospitality, and Godliness. 

The Home Maker. To be the guiding spirit of an ideal 
home a woman needs not o:dy the highest qualities of mind 
and heart, but also a strong body and steady nerves. Perfect 
health should be the aim of every girl. To this end she should 
study her physiology and practice what it teaches. 

The efficient home maker, in addition to possessing these 
high qualities of heart and body, must understand in detail 
everything that pertains to the administration of her house- 
hold. 

13 



14 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

THE HOUSE 

The structure that liolds the home is tlie liouse, and mucli or 
tlie comfort of the family depends upon it. 

Location. The first thing to consider in the house is its 
location. One should be guided in the selection of a site for a 
house by the surroundings, which include the neighbors as avcII 
as the physical conditions. Are the people desirable associates 
for the family ? Are their ideals in matters of conduct and edu- 
cation what they should be ? We must remember that a family 
cannot always live to itself. In the physical surroundings, too, 
there are many factors to be considered. Is there a railway, fac- 
tory, or mill near by which is disagreeable on account of noise, 
smoke, or odors ? What is the direction of the prevailing winds ? 
Do hills obstruct the breeze ? Do surrounding buildings cut off 
the light or air? Is the locality very cold in winter? Is the 
site well drained? Is there stagnant water near by? Is trans- 
portation to school or business quick and direct? If there are 
children in the family, one should locate near a good school. 

Sanitary Conditions. The sanitary conditions, also, should 
be carefully considered, as faulty plumbing or an impure water 
supply may outweigh the advantage of location. What kind 
of water supply is there ? If in a city, is there a sewer connec- 
tion? If in the country, what disposal can be made of the 
sewage? Are the outbuildings properly located? 

Appearance. Next in importance is the appearance of the 
house. This should be considered whether one is building or 
renting, as a building of a forbidding appearance is apt to 
affect the spirit of the home makers. The color of the exterior 
should be neutral, never glaring. Wliite may be used where 
there is much shade. There should be little contrast in the 
color of trim and walls. 

A garden and shrubbery add much to the appearance of the 
house by making it more homelike. Even if the house is rented, 
some quick-growing shrubbery and fruit trees should be 
planted. Ugly buildings may be screened with plants and 
vines. Plants should never be so near the walls, however, that 



THE HOME 15 

tlie foundation will be kept damp. Flowers and plants should 
be at the side of the lawn, for a suiootli stretch of green grass 
is always beautiful. Moreover, if the lawn is broken by flower 
beds, the labor of caring for it is increased. 

A kitchen garden at the back, even if small, is very useful. 
Parsley, mint, and other plants for garnishing and seasoning 
may be grown in a small bed, while if space permits, a larger 
garden will furnish delicious fresh vegetables much cheaper 
than they can be bouglit. 

The Importance of Air. In building or renting a house one 
should never forget that fresh air is of prime importance. "We 
must have oxygen to keep the body fire burning; if the supply is 
deficient the digestion is slow, tlie lungs cannot throw off the 
wastes, headaches and drowsiness follow, and the general health 
becomes bad. Every i-oom must have some way of letting in fresli 
air and letting out bad air. This is best done by means of a 
grate or transom near the ceiling. Tlie opening need not be 
large, and may be arranged so that there will be no draft. For 
the entrance of fresh air a window with a cheesecloth screen 
may be used, or, if the house is heated by stoves, a pipe from 
outdoors may open into the room by means of a grating under 
the stove. Some stoves are jacketed so that this air is warmed 
before it reaches the person in the room. Whatever the means 
adopted, an abundance of pure air must be provided. An elec- 
tric fan, if properly placed, is useful in securing good ventila- 
tion. "Windows should be planned to afford a good circulation 
of air, but wall space should be left for the furniture that is to 
be used. 

Full-length window screens are of the greatest aid in secur- 
ing good ventilation, as the windows can be opened at the top 
without fear of letting in the flies. 

The Doorway. Since one gains his first impression of the 
interior of a house as its door opens, the doorway must be simple 
and dignified. A plain wooden door of good proportions is bet- 
ter than one that contains a small square of glass or much 
carving. 



IQ THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Woodwork. The woodwork of the house should be of 
simple and harmonious form. Much carving is out of place in a 
liome, for it catches dust and is not beautiful. The base- 
lioard and wooden facings sliould be flush with the wall, or the 
edges should be so sloped that there are no ledges to catch dust. 

The color used on woodwork must harmonize vvith that of the 
wall covering and the furniture. White woodwork is attractive 
and may be used with almost any other color, but it is hard to 
keep clean. It would be appropriate in a formal parlor or re- 
ception room, but it is not the best for a much used living room. 
Cream, gray, or even a soft brown may be used, although too 
deep a brown darkens a room. The woodwork may be finished in 
a dull varnish, stained and waxed, or painted with a good flat 
paint. 

The Floor. A waxed hardwood floor is durable and easy 
to care for, but in some localities is very expensive. A smootli 
pine floor, hoAvever, may be painted, or stained and varnished, 
and then waxed. A liglit broAvn is a good color for floors. 

The Walls. The general rule is that the wall must be lighter 
than the floor and darker than the ceiling. A dark color absorbs 
so much of the light that it may make the room too dark. A 
light wall on the other hand gives back or reflects almost four 
times as much light into a room as a dark one. This is true of 
artificial light as well as of sunlight. 

Avoid strong colors. Red or any veiy bright color makes a 
room seem small and is trying to the nerves. If a bright color 
is desired in a room it may be used in a small ornament. 

Some colors are warm Avhile others give an effect of coolness^ 
A dark room requires a w^arm and cheerful color such as a 
soft cream, jtIIow, or buff. For a room Avith much sunshine, 
cool colors must be chosen. A faint rose or a gray is pleasing 
in a light room. A delicate blue is a cool color that may be used 
in a bedroom. 

If Avail paper is used, the colors should be chosen according 
to the directions given above. Plain paper gives the best back- 
ground for pictures, but if a figured paper is used one Avith 



THE HOME 17 

small figures that are not too definite sliould be chosen. Never 
select paper Avith such definite figures that the wall seems 
spotted. 

If the room is very high a drop ceiling in border effect is 
pleasing and makes the room seem broad. Avoid borders that 
are darker than the paper or of striking design or color. 

THE FUENISHINGS 

After the walls, floors, and woodwork, come the furnishings. 
Here we must choose according to our needs and our pocket- 
books, never, however, forgetting that beauty is essential. 

Furniture. An object must properly fulfill its purpose ; 
for example, an uncomfortable chair is not beautiful. Never 
buy cheap carved furniture that is poorly made and difficult to 
keep clean. It is better to use the plainest painted chairs and 
tables until one is able to buy really good furniture. Wicker 
furniture is light and attractive, but hard to keep clean and 
quite expensive in a good grade. 

Rugs. Eugs should be used instead of carpets as they may 
be easily removed for cleaning. Avoid floral designs except in 
conventional patterns — that is, a design based on the flower, but 
drawn so that it is only suggested. Do not use too many small 
rugs in a room, as this gives a patchy appearance. The rug 
should lie on the floor so that its length is wdth the long lines 
of the room. It should never be turned crosswise. As the 
floor should be the darkest color in a room, choose subdued 
colors for it. Plain rugs show dust more than figured ones. A 
simple fiber rug makes a cheap floor covering. 

Curtains. A window is made to let in light and air. A 
curtain is used to shut out the gaze of the passer-by and to 
soften the lines of the window, but it must not interfere with the 
purpose of the window. Use scrim, net, or other soft fabric for 
curtains. A material that does not catch dust and that is easily 
washed or cleaned should be chosen. The color should be light ; 
a soft cream harmonizes with almost any finishing. Plain cur- 
tains are always in good taste. Never use figured curtains with 



18 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

figured wall paper. The curtains should stop at the window 
sill ; they should be hung straight with the lines of the window, 
and should never be looped or draped. Use small rods, and 
attach the curtains by rings so that they may be drawn aside 
easily. 

Pictures and Bric-a-Brac. Only a few pictures should be 
hung in a room, and these should be chosen to suit the room in 
which they are used ; family photographs, for instance, are not 
for display on the Avails of the room Avhere strangers are received. 
To make the picture most effective be sure that the mat, frame, 
and color of picture harmonize. Gilt frames are used chiefly for 
oil paintings. 

Hang pictures by two hooks Avith parallel Avires. Attach the 
wire to the top of the picture. In hanging a picture consider 
the reflection of the light. The light falling on the picture 
should come in the same direction as the light represented in it. 
The center of most pictures should be on a line Avith the eye 
Avhen one is standing, although in very large pictures it may be 
beloAV the le\'el of the eye. The shape of the picture should be 
similar to the shape of the space it is to occupj^ Small pictures 
are more effective if grouped. 

Bric-a-brac and statuary must be so artistic that they are 
Avorthy of a prominent place if they are to be displayed. Collec- 
tions of curios should be kept in cabinets. Some good vases are 
alloAvable, but a fe^Y floAvers only are needed in any one room. If 
a colored vase is chosen it should harmonize A\dth the room and 
the floAvers that go in it ; furthermore it should not have a 
painted design, for the flowers, not a design, are to be the 
decoration. The form of a vase is important, as one that 
turns over easily, or looks as though it Avould, is not 
attractive. 

Lamps. In choosing a lamp, AA^hether for oil, gas, or elec- 
tricity, study very carefully the form and color. Avoid glaring 
tones or those that give inharmonious or injurious lights. All 
artificial light is softened if it comes through neutral shades, 
especially amber. Elaborate figures and decorations such as 



THE HOME 19 

jingling crystals are in poor taste. If brass is used choose 
plain designs. Brass in lacquered finish may be kept clean 
easily. 

If oil must be used, a low, broad, metal lamp that will not tip 
over easily should be selected. The oil reservoir should hold 
at least a pint. A soft, large mesh wick that fills the burner 
should be used. If the wick is too small much air will enter 
and mix with the gas in the lamp and perhaps cause an explo- 
sion. For reading or any close work a round burner lamp is best. 

THE ROOMS OF THE HOUSE 

The Vestibule. If the front door opens into the living 
room, there should be a small vestibule to stop drafts and to 
provide a place in which to receive the casual caller. Little 
furniture is needed here. A chair, a simple table with a mirror 
above it, and possibly an umbrella stand are sufficient. The 
family coats and rubbers should be kept in a retired corner, 
never in the main entrance. If a hall is used instead of a vesti- 
bule it should be furnished in a simple Avay. The colors used 
should be dignified. Brown in furniture and floor covering 
and cream for walls and ceiling are appropriate. 

The Living Room. The living room is the center of the 
home, for here the members of the family meet in their moments 
of leisure and here their friends are received. This room should 
be large, if possible, and a fireplace should be provided (even 
if it must be reenforced by other heat in very cold weather), 
for it gives a homelike feeling that nothing else can supply. 

Windows should be large and well placed, and the curtains 
should suit the furnishings. 

Bookshelves will be needed, -as well as two tables, one with 
shaded lamp for reading and the other for games. Chairs should 
be low and roomy. A couch with a bright soft cover, a few good 
pictures, a beautiful plant or two, and such other decorations 
as seem pleasing would complete the furnishing of an attractive 
living room. 



20 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

The Dining Room. Unless the family is very large a dining 
room need be of a moderate size only. It should be a cheery 
room with just the necessary furniture, a dining table, a serv- 
ing table, and chairs. There may be in addition a low side- 
board and a simple china cabinet if there is no built-in cabinet. 
Few, if any, pictures are needed in a dining room. 

A small pantry between the dining room and the kitchen 
aids in keeping out the fumes of the kitchen when food is being 
cooked. If possible, a wall cupboard for china that is in use 
every day should open into both the kitchen and the dining 
room, so that the dishes may be carried from the table to the cup- 
board and taken out on the kitchen side. If the sink and the 
drying table are just beside this Avail cupboard, the dishes when 
washed can be returned to it and thus many steps saved. A 
screened porch may be used to advantage for a summer dining 
room. 

The Dishes. Choose dishes of pleasing form, in plain white 
or in some dainty design in color. Decorations on dishes should 

be on a part not used for food; 
for example, a plate may have 
a delicate border on the rim a 
little inside the edge. Avoid thick 
ware, as food served in it is not 
attractive. In buying china choose 
what is known as open stock, 
that is, a pattern sold in any 
desired number of pieces, so that 
A SIMPLE DECORATION broken dishes may be replaced 

without trouble. 
Glassware. Choose plain, clear glassware that is of good 
proportions. A drinking glass that is tall and narrow cannot be 
used in comfort, and a top-heavy pitcher may turn over. Do 
not buy imitation cut glass as it is hard to clean and is easil.y 
cracked ; in fact, even real cut glass is not always artistic and is 
expensive and troublesome. Do not buy glass in elaborate designs 
or in colors. 




THE HOME 



21 




ATTRACTIVE PATTERNS IN SPOONS 
(Courtesy of Spaulding & Co.) 



Silver and Cutlery. Choose silver and plated ware in plain 
designs, as much decoration catches dirt. Since silver plate 
is hard to keep in order, use glass and china as far as 
possible. Steel bladed knives are best for meats that require 
cutting; but as steel requires even more careful cleaning than 
silver, it is better to use silver or plated knives where no meat that 
requires cutting is to be 
served. The silver plate 
should not be light in 
^veight. The satin finish 
scratches more easily 
than does the polished 
finish. 

Tahh Linen. Select 
a medium or h e a v y 
weight linen of good quality, and buy it from a firm which will 
guarantee it to be real linen. Choose napkins to match the 
tablecloth ; two sizes are useful, one for dinner, the other for 
luncheon or supper. 

Small doilies for each saucer and Avater glass, large doilies 
for plates and dishes of food, and a centerpiece, may be used 
in place of a tablecloth. 

A quilted or asbestos pad under the tablecloth protects the 
table, improves the appearance of the cloth, and lessens the noise. 

The Kitchen. The kitchen should be in a cool place. A 
northeastern room gets the morning sunshine, and is cool 
in summer. The windows should be planned so as to give 
plenty of air, but care should be taken to prevent a draft 
over the stove. A small kitchen saves many steps. The 
kitchen table should not be over six feet from the stove. The 
walls should be painted with a washable enamel paint of a 
pleasing color. Linoleum makes a most satisfactory floor 
covering, as it is much easier to clean than wood. It is too 
cold for the feet in winter, however, and small rugs or strips 
of matting should be placed by the table, sink, and stovo. 
Linoleum camaot be used unless the floor is even. It should 



22 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



not be fastened down firmly until it lias been used for two 
weeks as it will stretch and become uneven on the floor. 

Furnishings. Provide a good kitchen cabinet, with recep- 
tacles for the supplies most used. A table from 28 to 36 inches 
high, and a stool to correspond, will also be needed. The table 
should be co^-ered with zinc, aluminoid, or heavy glass. A sink 
of the right height, about 36 inches, a drain board, and a good 




A Well equipped kitchen 

supply of running water are other necessities. If possible have 
a faucet over the stove to fill kettles. An enameled or soapstone 
sink is preferable to a black iron sink which rusts and is hard 
to clean. The space below the sink should be open, and the floor 
should be protected witli a rubber unit. 

Shelves and Hooks. Have all shelves and hooks at a conve- 
nient height, neither high enough to require much stretching of 
the arms, nor low enough to require stooping. Make the shelves 
narrow so that everything may be seen at a glance. Have ^ 



THE HOJVIE 23! 

small one for cook books. Place hooks near the place where 
the utensils will be needed ; hang only one utensil on each hook. 

The Stove. Unless the kitchen is heated by some other means, 
use a good wood or coal stove for winter; in summer a gas or 
blue flame oil stove or an electric stove is to be preferred. 
"Whenever possible, use an elevated oven to save stooping. 
A coal or wood stove may be mounted on brick or iron. 

In selecting a wood or coal stove, choose a plain one of heavy 
iron. If too thin, it will not retain the heat well. An inter- 
lining of asbestos in the oven saves fuel. The firebox must 
be in proportion to the space to be heated. A very small one 
requires constant replenishing. The oven must be large enough 
to bake all that will be required for the family. If a new stove 
is needed for a kitchen that is already furnished, be sure that the 
stove will suit the utensils already on hand. 

If any other method of heating water is available, do not 
have the water pipes in the stove as this is the most expensive 
way. A gas jet or an oil stove should be used for the purpose. 

A small alcohol lamp or an electric plate may be used for 
heating water for tea or coffee. A good tireless cooker or a steam 
cooker saves much time and fuel. 

Utensils* Use light utensils Avith lips and joints attached 
by rivets rather than solder. Aluminum is very desirable, but 
if thin it dents easily. As aluminum is slightly affected by acids 
and alkalies, use thin, light enameled ware for foods containing 
much acid or where soda is used (as in cooking beans). Dis- 
card enameled ware when it is chipped. Tin utensils rust, those 
of iron are very heav}^, and wooden ones are not durable ; there- 
fore these materials should be little used. Provide mixing 
bowls of well-glazed crockery. Glass jars are clean and 
attractive for storing supplies. 

A small kitchen grindstone and a good flexible meat knife are 
great helps. Provide also long-handled forks, spoons, and skim- 
mers, a long-handled hook for drawing pans to the edge of the 
oven, and an oven shovel for lifting out pie tins. 

* See .\ppi->n.dix, pag^^" 0S5, for equipment of l\onie kiteheu, 



24 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

The Refrigerator. A good refrigerator is not cheap, be- 
cause the process and the materials used in its making are expen- 
sive. It is not economy to buy a poor one, for such a refrigerator 
will use far more ice than a good one. It should be tile or 
enamel lined, as zinc is hard to keep clean. All racks and shelves 
should be of metal, as v^ood will absorb moisture. The inside 
corners should be rounded for ease in cleaning. The waste pipe 
of the refrigerator should never be connected with the sewers. 
If a pipe carries the water outdoors, see that it drains away 
promptly. The refrigerator should be conveniently located. 

A Cooling Cuphoard. On a porch or on the outside ledg<' 
of a window, a box may be fixed which can be used for keep- 
ing food cool. It should have screened sides, and a curtain 
next to the house to keep the hot air out. 

The Pantry. A pantry or storeroom should be provided 
next to the kitchen, unless the housekeeping is on a very small 
scale. It should be well ventilated and lighted. Where no pantry 
is available, a wire kitchen-safe, that has the bottom covered 
with screening to keep out mice, may be used. 

The Cellar. A cellar should have plenty of windows on 
opposite sides to give proper ventilation. In a warm climate 
cellars should be frequently whitewashed, to keep them free 
from mold. 

The Bathroom. Every dwelling, no matter how simple, 
should have a bathroom. If there is running water in the house, 
the bathing problem is easy, as a bathtub and toilet can be in- 
stalled for sixty dollars or even less. Choose a porcelain or 
enameled tub, and place it far enough away from the wall to 
enable one to clean under and about it easily; or have it flush 
against the wall with a solid base resting on the floor. The floor 
of the bathroom, if not tiled, may be covered with linoleum. 
A small washable rug should be provided. Shelves of glass on 
metal brackets and glass toAvel rods are the most hygienic for 
the bathroom. 

The Toilet. (See page 36.) Although it is best to have 
the toilet or "\vater eloaet apart from the bath it may be put in 



THE HOME 25 

the bathroom. Choose a bowl that is quite low, and with as 
little wood about it as possible. 

Study the plumbing system carefully and note arrangement 
of pipes and traps. Water stands at the bend in the pipe where 
the trap is located, to prevent the entrance of sewer gas. This 
is called the water seal. In plumbing fixtures which are seldom 
flushed this water may evaporate. Note the location and arrange- 
ment of tanks for flushing and the size and condition of each 
pipe. Are they apt to become clogged? See that the joints in 
pipes are perfect. All plumbing fixtures should be connected 
with escape pipes which extend above the roof. Where is the 
connection made ? If there is no sewer system consider carefully 
location and arrangement of cesspools or septic tanks. The lat- 
ter is to be preferred to the former. (Write to the United 
States Department of Agriculture for the bulletins on ^'Com- 
forts and Conveniences of Farm Homes" and "Plans for a 
Septic Tank.") 

The Bedroom. Tlie floor of the bedroom should be bare 
except for small rugs placed where they are needed. As the 
bed is the most important piece of furniture in the room, one 
should buy the best springs and mattress possible. Wire 
springs should have a stout covering to jDrotect the mattress 
from rust. Tlie bed itself should be plain and of pleasing form. 
White enameled metal beds are the easiest to keep in order. 
J^rass beds are attractive, but they are hard to keep polished. 
Never buy elaborately carved wooden beds Avitli wicker insets. 
They catch much dust and cannot be kept clean. Chiffoniers 
and dressers should be roomy. All heavy furniture should be 
on rollers that work easily. Low chairs and a small table are 
the only other necessary pieces of furniture. 

Good woolen blankets will outlast many pairs of cotton ones, 
are warmer and more comfortable, and can be easily cleaned. 
Comforts, or puffs, as they are sometimes called, cannot be well 
cleaned. Good feather pillows are durable and comfortable. 

Sheets should be of smooth material ; they must be large 
enough to tuck in around the mattress on all sides, and the upper 



26 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

sheet should be long enough to fold several inches over the top 
of the blankets. 

If there is a stationary washstand in the bathroom washstands 
are not needed in the family bedrooms. One should be provided, 
however, in a guest chamber. A metal framework, with a 
glass top is preferable. The space underneath should be open. 

There must be plenty of well-lighted and ventilated closets 
for clothing. These should liave shelves arranged low so there 
will be no strain in reaching. 

The Stairs. If the house has more than one story, stairs 
are a necessary evil and must be planned for comfort in climb- 
ing. A stair that is easy to climb has a rise of about seven 
inches with a tread ten inches wide, exclusive of the part that 
overlaps. If the rise is too high, climbing is difficult ; if too low, 
the jar of each step is great ; if the tread is too narrow, one is 
apt to stumble. The stair should never be less than three feet 
six inches in width. 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

Does the word home mean only the house, or does it include the atmos- 
phere or feeling that centers in the family? What are some of the qualities 
of a real home? Mention some way in which these blessings may be secured. 
Do they depend on wealth? 

Why is the location of a house so important? Select a suitable location 
for a home in your comnumity. Enumerate some of the factors to be consid- 
ered. What sanitary points must be considered in selecting a house? What 
kind of water supply have you? Is it safe? 

Why is the appearance of a house so important? What color would you 
choose for a house in the location you have selected? Why? Bring a 
picture of a house that you like. Plan a lawn and flower beds suitable for 
your climate. 

Make a list of fruit trees that you could plant. Plan a kitchen garden. 

Is the woodwork in your home easy to dust? Could it be improved? 
What color would you select for your woodwork? How would you finish it? 
How would you finish a pine floor? 

Why is coloi" so important in wall coverings? What color would you 
choose for a dai'k room? For a well-lighted one? For your dining room? 
Why avoid red? What color would you select for the ceiling of a dark 
room? 



THE HOME 27 

Which do you prefer, tinted or papered walls? Why? Compare cost. 
Select samples of wall paper, and consider carefully their design and color. 
How could the apparent height of a room be decreased ? 

What are some of the points to be considered in selecting rugs and 
curtains? How should pictures be hung? 

Select a picture of a good lamp suitable for the living room table. 
Mention some essential points in choosing lighting fixtures. 

Tell how a dining room should be furnished. What dishes would you 
{■elect for your table? Describe good glassware. What designs in silver 
and plated ware do you like? Which scratches more easily, polished or 
satin finished silver? What is the price of table linen of good quality? 
What good designs have you seen? 

Draw a plan for a convenient home kitchen, nuirking location of sink, 
table, cabinet, etc. What color would you choose for the walls? How 
would you cover the floor? Can a kitchen table be artistic I How would 
you cover yours? How high should it be to suit you? Why provide a 
stool? Wh.at is the proper height for your sink? If there is no running 
water in your kitchen, make an estimate of the cost of securing it. What 
kind of sink will you want? What are the important points in arranging 
shelves? 

How can your stove be placed at a convenient height? Why is a good 
stove so important? Give some important j^oints in selecting one. 

What utensils or appliances used in the school kitchen do you need in 
your home? Make a list of utensils and furnishings needed for a family 
kitchen, giving size and price. 

If you do not have a bathroom, estinmte the cost of equipping one with 
tub, seat, and wash bowl. How should the tub be arranged? How would 
you finish the floor? 

Describe the furnishings of a bedroom. How much would they cost? 
What length is required for sheets? 

Find a plan of a house that would suit your family. Select samples or 
pictures of furnishings for each room. Illustrate your color scheme for 
each room, either with sketches in water colors or with pictures and samples. 



CHAPTER II 

HOUSEHOLD SANITATION 

Yeasts, mokis, and bacteria are microscopic plants, that is, 
plants so small they can be seen only under the microscope. For 
a long time it was believed that these tiny bodies were small 
animals, but scientists now agree that they are plants. 

Yeast. The yeast plant is larger than a bacterium. Tell 
what you can about it. In what form is it offered for sale ? 

Mold. Mold is another plant of this class. Mildew on 
clothes and mold on bread or jelly are simply large groups of 
these plants growing together. Molds grow in some kinds of 
cheese and give it a special flavor. In general, how^ever, molds 
are dangerous to health, and molded food should be thrown 
away. To prevent the growth of mold, protect food and cloth- 
ing from dust and dampness. 

Experiment I. — Put a soft piece of corn bread in a damp, warm place 
exposed to the dust for a few days. Note the result. Leave a little thin 
sugar syrup in a like place. What effect has warmth and dampness on 
mohl growth? 

Bacteria. The third class of minute plants is bacteria. 
Louis Pasteur, the great French scientist, was the first to make a 
thorough study of these plants and his work has done much for 
mankind. Before his day physicians did not know that dis- 
eases are caused by special germs ; through this knowledge 
they now prevent or cure many diseases. 

How Bacteria Grow and Spread. Bacteria are so small 
that many hundred millions might lie on the head of a pin. When 
dry they float about in the air on particles of dust; when they fall 
on good soil, whether it is a break in the skin, a bowl of soup, 

28 



HOUSEHOLD SANITATION 29 

or a jar of fruit, they begin to grow and multiply. As they grow, 
waste products are formed and these wastes are sometimes 
poisonous. Some bacteria, as those found in butter and cheese, 
are useful in giving flavor to food. Some change materials in the 
soil to a form that can be used by plants that furnish us with 
food. Other bacteria do harm by causing food to spoil; still 
others cause disease. Bacteria that cause disease are sometimes 
called germs. Typhoid fever, diphtheria, and tuberculosis are 
some of the diseases caused by them. 

Most bacteria grow best in dark, damp, warm places, where 
there is suitable soil. Like all plants, they need food, air, heat, 
and moisture. But, unlike plants, their best food is found in 
the substances which human beings eat. 

How Bacteria Are Destroyed. Bacteria are destroyed in 
different ways. Dryiiig will kill many of them ; strong sunlight, 
too, destro3^s most disease germs, but not all bacteria. A boil- 
ing temperature long continued will kill most of them, although 
those that form spores cannot be destroyed in this way but must 
be heated on successive days. The spores may be compared 
to seeds. A sprouted seed is easy to kill, while a hard, dry one 
is not. By reheating the food on three successive days a part 
of the spores are killed on each day as they begin to grow. 
Cold does not destroy bacteria but puts them to sleep ; when 
they become warm they again begin to grow. 

Study of Bacteria in Dust. Procure two Petri dishes from your drug- 
gist or dealer (a Petri dish consists of two shallow glass dishes, one of 
which fits over the other as a lid), or use small, clear glass bowls and 
sheets of thin, clear glass for the lid. To prepare a suitable soil, make 
beef jelly as directed below. 

Jelly for Petri Dish. Chop fine one-fourth pound lean beef. Mix this 
with 1 cup warm water. 

Heat in double boiler, stirring often until water in pan has boiled for 
fifteen minutes. Bemove inner kettle, place directly over the fire, and boil 
for ten minutes. Strain through cotton flannel. Add one-fourth teaspoon- 
fui bicarbonate of soda and enough water to make one cup of liquid. 
Moisten three tablespoonfuls of gelatin in cold water and add to the hot 
liquid. Wlien dissolved, strain through hot flannel. 



30 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Put three or four tablespoonfuls in several small liottles, cork with cotton, 
and tie a thick pad of cotton over each. Place the bottles on a folded 
cloth in a pan of cold water and boil for fifteen minutes each day for three 
days, so that all bacteria may be destroyed. Then the jelly is ready to use in 
Petri dishes. Keep in a cool place. When ready to upe the jelly, melt by 
placing the bottles in cold water and heating gradually just enough to melt 
the jelly. Cool slightly, and use in Petri dish. 

Experiment II. — Wash the dishes very clean, tie on the lids, and 
sterilize by boiling or baking. When the dishes have cooled lift the lid 
and pour in a little jelly from the bottles of the beef preparation wliich 
has been melted and slightly cooled. (Jelly can be taken from a bottle but 
once, as bacteria are likely to enter as soon as it is opened.) Turn the dish 
so that the bottom will be coated well, then expose it to the air for thirty 
minutes in a room that has just been dusted with a feather duster. Cover 
the plate and keep in a warm room — not over 70° F., for a week. Expose 
the other dish in a room dusted with an oiled duster according to direc- 
tions, page 31. Note carefully any changes that occur on the surface of the 
jelly. Examine it under a magnifying glass. At the end of a week lift the 
cover and smell the contents. Examine a speck from the surface with a 
microscope. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Name the three classes of microscopic plants. Are bacteria plants or ani- 
mals? What do they require for growth? What conditions are most favor- 
able for growth of molds'? Tell what you can of Pasteur's great work. 
Where are bacteria found? Mention some helpful bacteria. Some harmful 
ones. Some germs. When are bacteria called germs? How may bacteria 
be destroyed? What is meant by spore-forming bacteria? How may germs 
be rendered harmless? Describe the preparation of Petri dishes, giving 
reason for each step. Why should all food be protected from dust? 

THE CARE OF THE HOUSE 

In the preceding paragraphs it has been shown that dust 
frequently carries the germs of disease or mold and yeast spores 
which cause food to spoil. Therefore, cleaning the house so as 
to remove the dust and dirt is of great importance to the health. 

Methods of Cleaning Floors. Remember that the dust you 
raise in trying to remove the dirt will soon settle in the place 
you have cleaned, so stir up as little as possible. For ordinary 
floors use a long-handled brush and one of the oils made for the 
purpose. A dry cleaning mop or a broom covered with a sack 



HOUSEHOLD SANITATION 31 

or soft cloth may be used on polished floors. The best method 
of cleaning rugs and carpets is by using a vacuum cleaner; the 
next best, a carpet sweeper. If a broom must be used, dampen 
it. Sweep rugs and carpets in the way in which they were 
woven (you can tell the direction of the nap by the feeling). 
To clean mattings, first sweep, then wipe with a damp cloth. 
Never wet them. 

Start at one corner of the room, and brush lengthwise of 
the boards. Be sure to keep the broom close to the floor. Stand 
on the clean portion and push the broom before you. Hold it 
almost upright on the dirt collected for a moment ; then lift 
the broom and remove any particles that cling to it and brush 
the next space. When the middle of the floor is reached, 
begin again to sweep at the opposite side of the room. Never 
sweep dirt from one room to another. Collect the dirt in small 
piles. 

Taking" Up the Dirt and Dust. Cover the dustpan with a 
piece of damp paper, arranged so that it stands high at the 
back, in order to prevent the dust from flying; then brush the 
dirt into the pan with a small hand brush. If there is much dust, 
it is well to cover your mouth and nose with a thin damp cloth. 
Burn all the dust. It may be put in the kitchen stove, but 
never while food is being prepared. Keep the dampers open 
while the dust is burning. 

The Stair. In sweeping the stairs, clean the corners care- 
fully, and brush the dirt from each step into a dustpan covered 
with a damp paper as described. Hardwood stairs should be 
wiped with a damp or oiled cloth. 

Dusting. Dust the room two hours after it has been swept ; 
use a soft cloth slightly dampened or oiled ; gather the dust into 
a part of the cloth, fold over the cloth, and dust the next portion. 
Dust the highest part of the room or furniture first. Then wipe 
the woodwork and floor Avith a slightly damp cloth. After the 
dusting is finished, wash the dust cloth. 

To Clean a Room Thoroughly. Open the windows, unless 
the wind is high. Dust and put away all small articles; wipe 



32 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

the dust from the chairs and take them from the room ; dust 
pictures and ornaments, and pieces of furniture that are too 
large to remove, and cover them with cloth or paper. If a bed- 
room is being cleaned, take the coverings out of doors unless the 
weather is too damp ; shake well and hang in the sun and air ; 
using a soft cloth, wipe the dust from the mattress, and air 
it ; brush the springs and bed corners well with a stiff 
brush, then cover with a sheet while the room is being swept. 
Dust the shades and roll them up ; take down curtains and, if 
possible, shake them out of doors, fold, and put out of the dust. 
Clean the washstand crockery, and take it out of the room ; 
wash windows if necessary; clean electric fixtures, door knobs, 
etc. Fold the rugs so that the dirt will not fall out and take 
them out of doors. Close the doors and sweep. Wipe the floor 
if it is necessary. After two hours, dust the room and replace 
the furniture A thorough cleaning in this way once a week is 
far better than a little stirring of the dust every day. 

Cleaning the Rugs. Turn the rug upside down on the grass 
and beat with a whip. Wipe off the back of the rug with a damp 
cloth. Turn it over and wipe a strip lengthwise ; fold over this 
strip and wdpe another ; continue until all is cleaned. Rinse the 
cloth when it is dirty. If the rug is too large to move, wipe a 
strip on top of the rug, then on the underside, then the floor; 
fold over the clean part and continue until half is done ; then 
begin at the other end. Small rugs may have all df one side 
wiped at once. 

Fleas may be the carriers of disease germs, particularly of bubonic 
plague, which they carry from rats to human beings. Fleas or their eggs 
may find lodgment in floor coverings if pet dogs or cats are kept in the 
house. A thorough brushing will remove them from rugs, but in mattings 
they can be destroyed only by fumigation with formaldehyde gas. 

Woodwork. Wipe varnished woodwork with a cloth 
dipped in a little furniture polish or oil, then rub off the oil 
with a soft dry cloth free from lint. All woods must be rubbed 
with the grain w^hen being polished. 



HOUSEHOLD SANITATION 33 

Furniture Polish. For the polish, use equal parts of linseed oil, vine- 
gar, and turpentine. Mix well and shake before applying. 

Painted woodwork may be cleaned with cold water and whit- 
ing, or with warm water. Alkalies such as borax and soap should 
be avoided, as they soften paint. Enamel paint should be cleaned 
with warm water. 

Cleaning Windows. Dust the shades and curtains and re- 
move them ; dust the windows well with a soft cloth ; wash the 
woodwork if necessary ; and clean the corners carefully, using a 
rag on a skewer. Wash the glass with clear water and ammonia. 
Use plenty of clean soft cloths, and polish until dry. Never 
wash windows while the sun is shining on them. Some of the 
patent preparations lessen the labor in cleaning windows and are 
very satisfactory. 

Care of Floors. A waxed floor should be cleaned with a 
dry cloth or mop, or one that is onl}^ slightly damp. Never use 
a broom on a waxed or polished floor. Rub it occasionally with 
a weighted brush to renew the polish. An unpainted kitchen 
floor should be cleaned with warm water and soap, and 
dried as soon as possible to keep the wood from softening. An 
oiled floor should be wiped with a soft cloth. Do not use soap 
and water on it. Linoleum may be wiped with warm water and 
soap. 

Daily Care of a Bedroom. As soon as you arise in the 
morning, take the covers from your bed and spread them on 
chairs in the sun and air. Then roll the bed into the sunshine. 
Let the room air if possible before cleaning it. Put away all 
clothing; hang night garments in an airy closet; never fold 
them under pillows. Straighten the dresser. All crockery or 
other utensils used in a bedroom should be kept very clean. 
Rinse with cold water, wash with warm soapy water, then dry 
and air. Disinfect twice a week as directed for plumbing. (See 
page 36.) 

To Make a Bed. Turn the mattress. If a pad is used, 
place it in the center of the mattress with the hems down. Put 
on the under sheet, right side up, center fold in center of mat- 



34 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

tress, wide hem at top. Allow more of the sheet at the foot than 
at the head. Tuck in the sheet neatly at the foot. Do the same 
at the head. Then arrange the sides. Finish by making corners 
square. Put on the upper sheet, wide hem at the top even with 
the top of the mattress, and tuck it in at the foot. 

It is better to keep tl.e blankets in an airy place until night. 
Put on the blankets with open ends at the top. Leave the ends 
about twelve inches from the top of the mattress. Tuck in at the 
foot. Turn the sheet back over the blanket and tuck covering 
in at the sides. Leave everything smooth. 

If the counterpane or spread is to be used at night, put it on 
with the top even with the top of the blanket, fold the sheet over 
it, and tuck it in at the foot. If the spread is used only in the 
daytime, put it even with the top of the mattress and do not tuck 
it in at the foot. 

Lay the pillows flat on the bed with the open end out and 
tuck the seam underneath. Do not use pillow shams or elaborate 
cases that must be removed at night. 

Watch carefully when you make the bed, and if you find either bugs 
or eggs, clean the bed immediately. The bugs are killed by gasoline 
or oil of cedar put on with a brush, or put into the cracks with a machine 
oil can. Never use gasoline where there is a light or a fire. After clean- 
ing the bed, air the room for several hours before a light is taken into 
it. Wash wooden slats thoroughly with a stiff brush to remove the eggs. 
Remove the eggs from the mattresses with a damp cloth. After clean- 
ing wooden beds, fill the cracks with laundry soap or putty, and varnish 
or paint well. 

Arranging the Bedroom for the Night. Remove the spread 
and fold it carefully, unless it is to be used. Turn the covers 
down one-fourth of the way. Bring in a small pitcher of fresh 
water and a glass, and cover them with a napkin. Refill the 
washstand pitcher, empty waste water, and bring fresh towels 
if needed. 

The Care of Lamps. Always keep globes clean whether 
used for electric, gas, or oil lamps. Never use a half-filled oil 
lamp that has been standing for a day or two. Wipe the chim- 



HOUSEHOLD SANITATION 35 

ney with a soft paper, wash in hot soapy water, and dry while 
warm with a soft cloth. Trim the wick by cutting off the dark 
part evenly ; if it is a flat wick, trim off the corners so that they 
will be lower than the center. Wipe the burner with a soft paper 
and see that the air holes are not clogged. Fill lamps to within 
an inch of the top, screw on the cap, and wipe off all the oil. 
This work should he done in daylight. Never fill a lighted lamp. 
Do not keep the oil can near fire. 

When lamp burners become clogged, take out the wick and 
boil the burner for ten minutes in two quarts of water to which 
two tablespoonfuls of washing soda have been added ; wipe dry, 
and then put in the wick. 

The Dining Room and Kitchen. In cleaning the dining 
room and kitchen, leave no crumbs, grains of sugar, or other 
foods, as ants, roaches, or water bugs may be attracted. Never 
sweep or dust the dining room just before serving a meal, as it 
is better to have the dirt on the floor and furniture than in the 
food. Do not keep the tablecloth on all day, but remove it after 
crumbing, fold it in the creases, and lay it away. Set a plant or 
a vase of flowers in the center of the table on a centerpiece. 
Sweep the kitchen after all food and utensils are put away. 

Keep food in tight receptacles or put the legs of cupboards in vessels 
of oil or water to keep away ants. Use some of tlie powders or pastes to 
destroy roaches. 

Care of Bathroom. Let sunshine and air in daily. Remove 
the rug and wipe it, dust all furnishings, clean all plumbing fix- 
tures with soap and water, and rub the floor with a soft oiled 
brush. Take aw^ay damp towels. Then replace the rug. Clean 
thoroughly once a week. 

The Plumbing. To prevent dust from accumulating in the 
overflow pipe of the bathtub or stationary washstand, spray well 
with hot soap suds, using a machine oil can. Keep all fixtures 
perfecth^ clean. Clean an enameled bathtub by wiping it dr}^ 
then rubbing it Avell with a little kerosene oil on flannel, and 
finishinsr with drv flannel. Marble and tiles mav be cleaned with 



36 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

a soft cloth and soap and water; stained marble with whiting. 
A solution of muriatic acid may be used on porcelain and enam- 
eled plumbing to remove the stains. Pour a little of the acid 
over a mop or rag fastened on a stick, rub it over the surface, 
and wash off quickly. Wipe and polish faucets. 

Disinfecting" Plumbing Fixtures. Where there is con- 
tagious or infectious disease, the closets should be disinfected; 
for this purpose, use six ounces of carbolic acid crystals dis- 
solved in a gallon of boiling water. Let it stand for one hour. 

Another good disinfectant is made by dissolving sixty grains 
of bichloride of mercury and one tablespoonful of common salt in 
two gallons of hot water. Do not put this in metal fixtures. 
Both of these disiyifectants are poisoyious and must not he left 
where children can reach them. Do not spill the solution on 
the skin. 

Keeping the Air Moist. It is important to keep the house 
properly warmed and at the same time to secure a good 
supply of fresh air that is not too dry. Moisture is needed with 
any heating system, but particularly with stoves. The effect of 
too dry air on the linings of the throat and nose is to cause them 
to become swollen and irritated, a condition which leads to colds. 
A vessel of water should be kept on every stove, the surface of 
the pan being comparatively large so that there is enough evapo- 
ration to keep the air moist. Too much moisture, however, is not 
desirable. Furniture kept in rooms heated by stoves not sup- 
plied with water becomes cracked and drawn. Steam and hot 
water heating systems are supposed to provide for sufficient 
moisture, but many do not. Damp cloths may be hung near the 
radiator if more moisture is needed, or pans filled with water 
may be attached. 

The Proper Temperature. Many colds are caused by a 
person's becoming too hot or too cold. Some people are not so 
much affected by such changes as others, but even they should 
take no risks. 

The best physicians agree that from 68 to 70 degrees Fahren- 
heit is the safest temperature for health; on a damp day 70 



HOUSEHOLD SANITATION 37 

degrees is not too much. On a bright, sunny day 68 degrees 
would probably be right. For old persons or children, 70 de- 
grees is desirable; for the very weak or delicate even this may 
not be warm enough. Sitting in a room with a temperature of 65 
degrees is dangerous. 

The Care of the Yard. Keep the yard clean and dry. 
Drain wet places; repair leaking hydrants; cover the top of 
tanks, cisterns, or receptacles containing stagnant water with a 
thin film of kerosene oil. Mosquitoes lay their eggs only in 
water, so if oil is used the larvae known as wiggletails will be 
destroyed, and the adult mosquito will be killed by the oil that 
adheres to her body when she lays her eggs. Burn trash and 
prune trees if they prevent the access of sunlight. Do not allow 
garbage to accumulate. Flies breed in moist, decaying filth, par- 
ticularly manure. Screen manure piles and cover garbage pails. 
Gnats also thrive in moist places. 

Disposal of Wastes. Do not throw dish water near the 
house. See that all waste water drains away quickly. 

Protection of Water Supply. If a well is used, see that 
no seepage from closets or stable yard can reach it. Provide 
a high curb that will prevent surface water from entering it; 
have a tight cover, and do not let poultry perch on it. If buckets 
are used, be sure that they are clean. Do not let water run into 
the cistern until the dirt has been washed from the roof. Keep 
gutters clean. Screen the cistern and protect it from birds. 
Pigeons have been known to carry typhoid germs from closet to 
cistern. 

The Outdoor Closet. There must be no overflow from pit 
or receptacle. It must be securely enclosed so that poultry and 
animals cannot reach it, and should be oiled to prevent the 
breeding of mosquitoes. The closet should be scrubbed fre- 
quently. A box of lime and a small shovel can be kept at hand, 
and whenever the closet is used a shovelful of lime should be 
thrown in. 

Never throw discharge from persons ill of infectious or con- 
tagious diseases into the closet until it has been disinfected. Use 



38 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

a carbolic acid solution, which has been well stirred, and allowed 
to stand for an hour. 

The Greatest Disinfectant. As sunlight destroys more 
germs than any amount of disinfectants, there cannot be too 
much of it in house and yard. Do not be afraid of spoiling the 
furnishings ; it is far better to have faded wall paper than pale 
and faded human beings. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What is dirt? What diseases may be carried in dust? What should be 
used in cleaning floors to keep the dust from rising? Tell how to sweep. 
How should the dust be taken up? What should be done with it? How 
should the stair be cleaned? Why wait for two hours after sweeping, before 
dusting? Why use a slightly dampened or oiled cloth? Give the order in 
which the room should be dusted. Tell how to clean a room thoroughly. 
How should a large rug be cleaned? A small one? 

How should polished woodwork be cleaned? Painted woodwork? Give 
directions for washing windows. For cleaning floors. 

What should you do to your room and bed as soon as you are dressed? 
Give directions for daily care of bedroom. Tell how to make the bed. How 
should you arrange the bedroom for the night? 

Why does the bathroom need such careful cleaning? Tell how to clean 
the bathtub and toilet. Give directions for disinfecting the toilet. 

Why is moisture needed in stove-heated rooms? What is the i)roper 
temperature for strong, well people? For children and old people? For the 
sick? Should the room be warmer on a damp day than on a dry cold day? 

How should wells be protected? Cisterns? How can the breeding of 
mosquitoes be prevented? Where do flies breed? How should outdoor 
closets be treated? What is nature's greatest disinfectant? 



PART TWO 

THE SELECTION, PREPARATION, AND 
SERVING OF FOOD 



CHAPTER I 

FOOD AND DIGESTION 
WHY WE NEED FOOD 

For Warmth. In answering the question why we need 
food, we may compare the body with a stove. During life the 
body is warm — it is filled with the "fire of life." Like a stove, 
the body consumes fuel, and, as in the stove, oxygen from the air 
is necessary to burn the fuel for the production of heat. In the 
stove the air from the draft furnishes the necessary oxygen; 
in the body, it is the air that is breathed. 

For Work. We may also, and more aptly, liken the 
body to an engine; for an engine not only consumes fuel and 
becomes warm but it also does work, produces motion, and runs 
machinery. In exactly the same way our bodies, consuming food, 
are enabled to do work. When we climb a hill or run, we are 
doing work. Even when we rest, our heart engines keep up 
their work and our breathing movements continue. Throughout 
life we need food for work as well as for warmth. 

For Growth and Repair. The body is, however, more 
than an engine. Each is constantly wearing out its parts, but 
the body alone can repair itself. It does this with the food it 
uses. All da}' long active boys and girls wear out their nerves 
and muscles, and this causes sound sleep during which repair 
takes place faster than wear, and worn-out tissues are built up 

39 



40 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

again. Furthermore, the body can add to itself, for we see the 
child grow to the stature of a man or a woman. 

THE CLASSES OF FOODS AND THEIE USES IN THE BODY 

If you were asked to state what kinds of food are consumed 
in America, you could write a very long list. In all this variety 
there is, however, a great sameness. Chemists have analyzed 
the foods and found that they contain only five kinds of sub- 
stances or classes of foods. This fact is very plainly shown in 
the tables of food composition. 

The Three Chief Classes of Foods. Everyone knows that 
potatoes, molasses, butter, and lean meat are very different ; and 
that potatoes and rice are more alike than potatoes and butter. 
Potatoes and rice are both known as starchy food; molasses 
contains chiefly sugar ; butter consists of fat ; and lean meat is 
chiefly composed of a substance called protein. We have here, 
then, three classes of foods: (1) sugar and starch, together 
classed as the carhohydratesf (2) fats; and (3) proteins. 

Almost any food we may purchase is a mixture of two or 
all three of these classes. Sugar, olive oil, and lard are excep- 
tions. Starch is found with proteins or fats, or with both. 
From the tables showing the composition of the various foods 
(see pages 84, 89, 116, 127, 136, 147, 222, and 235), find out 
what, besides starch, is found in corn, wheat, almonds, and 
beans. Find out what classes of foods occur with proteins in peas, 
pecans, meat, and fish. Mention three foods that are largely fat. 

Uses of the Three Chief Classes of Foods. We have 
seen that food is needed in the body for warmth, for 
work, for growth, and for repair. We may state this still more 
simply by saying that we need energy foods and building foods, 
for heat and work are simply two forms of energy, and growth 
and repair are the result of building up the tissues. The ques- 
tion now is, which of the three classes of foods mentioned are 
energy foods and which are building foods. Carbohydrates, fats, 

* Sugar and starch are classed together as carbohydrates because they are 
chemically much alike (See pages 116 and 235) and because their use in the body 
Is identical, since the starch is changed to sugar by the process of digestion. 



FOOD AND DIGESTION 41 

and proteins all furnish energy, since they can all be used as 
"fuel" in the body. In this respect fats give the most energy, 
one pound of fat yielding more than twice as much as a pound 
of carbohydrates or protein. 

Proteins,* however, differ from carbohydrates and fats in 
that they serve other needs in the body. They are the only 
class of foods that can be used for growth and repair. We 
shall, therefore, use the term huilding foods in further refer- 
ences to this class of foods. Since the carbohydrates and fats 
can serve only as the source of heat energy and energy 
for work, we may refer to these two classes of foods as energy 
foods, j 

Mineral Foods and Water. To the carbohydrates, fats, 
and proteins must be added a fourth class, minerals, and a fifth 
class, water. Neither of these latter can furnish energy nor are 
they of use for growth or repair, but they are absolutely neces- 
sary for the health of the body. Of the minerals, table salt is 
the only one that must be added to our food, the others being 
present in sufficient quantities in a varied and well- 
balanced diet in which fruits and vegetables play an 
important part. Water dissolves food and waste substance in 
the body, and should be consumed in considerable quantities 
daily. 

OUTLINE OF CLASSES OF FOODS 



Energy Producing 
Foods 



The Energy Foods fl. Carbohydrates 

(In strict sense) < (Starch and Sugar) 



1^2. Fats 

^B. The Building Foods 3. Proteins 

r4. Minerals 
II. Non-Energy Producing Foods ^^ Water 

* It has been thought inadvisable to make further distinctions here between 
the carbonaceous foods (those containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 
namely the carbohydrates and fats) and the nitrogenous foods (those containing 
nitrogen and other elements in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, namely 
the proteins and tbe albuminoids), 

t The albuminoids, of which gelatin is the common example, have not been 
here considered. It should, perhaps, be explained to the pupil at this point that, 
while in chemical composition gelatin is similar to proteins, it cannot replace 
them, and it acts merely as "energy food" and not at all as a building food. 
The pupil is thus prevented from falling into erroneous notions as to the food 
value of gelatin. 



42 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



THE FUEL VALUE OF FOOD 



How Fuel Value is Determined. By fuel value of food 
is meant the amount of energy (heat and work) which a given 

quantity of food will 
produce. As the fuel 
value of coal is meas- 
ured, for the sake of con- 
venience, in terms of the 
heat it will produce, so 
the fuel value of food 
has been determined for 
all the common foods in 
terms of heat value, as 
can be seen from the 
tables of this book. The 
diagram shows an appa- 
ratus for measuring the 
fuel value of food. A 
weighed quantity of the 
food to be tested is 
placed in a crucible in- 
side the closed vessel D. 
Electric wires W are 
placed in contact with the food so that it may be burned 
by means of an electric current. The vessel D is supplied 
with oxygen through the tube 0, and is surrounded by 
a measured quantity of water within vessel C. A and B are 
larger vessels to prevent loss of heat. The temperature of the 
water in C is read on the thermometer T. From the weight of 
the food, the quantity of the water, and the increase of tem- 
perature of the water due to the burning of the food, the ''fuel 
value" of the food may be calculated. 

Standard of Measurement of Heat Value. The tempera- 
ture of the water, however, is not the same as the amount 
of heat in the water. Two liters of water would contain twice as 




. FOOD AND DIGESTION 43 

much heat as one liter at the same temperature. The unit of 
temperature is a degree; the unit of heat is a Calorie (from the 
Latin, caZor= heat). A Calorie is the amount of heat necessary 
to raise one liter of water one degree Centigrade. 

If, for example, in the experiment above, an ounce of food 
was found to raise the temperature of a liter of water forty 
degrees, we should say that an ounce of that particular food has 
a fuel value of forty Calories; or a pound (16 ounces) 
has 640 Calories. The tables on food composition give 
the fuel value in Calories for each pound of some of the com- 
mon foods. 

Daily Fuel Value Requirements. The quantity of food 
required each day varies chiefly with the amount of exercise 
taken. It has been estimated that a grown person rest- 
ing in bed needs sufficient daily food to furnish about 2000 
Calories of heat. The energy requirement may rise to 5000 or 
more for a man doing hard manual labor. The average man 
requires food yielding about 3000 Calories of heat daily. About 
four-sevenths of this should come from carbohydrates; a little 
more than two-sevenths from fats, and a little less than one- 
seventh from proteins. The table on page 278 gives the quan- 
tities of common foods necessary to furnish 100 Calories of 
heat. From this it is easy to calculate a ration for a day or for 
one of the three daily meals. 

CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 

The following experiments will prove of interest and should 
be performed in the laboratory. The tests given are the usual 
color tests for starch, protein, and reducing sugar. It is par- 
ticularly important that the tests be applied in Experiments 
VIII and IX. 

Experiment I, To test for starch. Place a drop of iodine solution on 
starch paste (a teaspoonful of starch boiled in a cup of water). If the 
paste is thick, the color will be an intense blue, almost black. Dilute the 
paste until the color is a bright blue. 



44 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

There are four principal kinds of sugar* that concern us 
in the study of the common sugars : cane sugar, which is the 
common granulated sugar; grape sugar, or glucose, found in 
grapes, but commercially manufactured from cornstarch; milk 
sugar, in milk ; and malt sugar, in fermenting grains, especially 
barley, but also found in the mouth as a result of the digestion 
of starch. 

The test here used is known as Trommer's test.f Prepare a 5% solu- 
tion of caustic soda and a 10% solution of copper sulphate. Keep these 
in separate bottles until ready for use. To perform the test, take about 
half an inch of the copper solution in a test tube and add about the same 
quantity of caustic soda, or add this until a bright blue and almost clear 
solution results. Add the sugar solution to be tested and heat the mixture. 
If grape, malt, or milk sugar is present in the solution, the mixture will 
turn first yellowish, then red. These three sugars are known as ''reduc- 
ing sugars." No such effect is produced by cane sugar or by starch. 
Test them also and compare with a test made by heating Trommer's 
solution. 

Experiment II. Test for grape sugar. Take some cheap stick candy or 
grind up some raisins and make a solution of either. Filter. Perform Trom- 
mer's test on filtrate. 

Experiment III. To change cane sugar to a reducing sugar. Make a 
solution of cane sugar. Add a few drops of hydrochloric acid to the solu- 
tion and boil. Neutralize with NaOH and make Trommer 's test. Eeducing 
sugar is found to have resulted. 

Experiment IV. To test for cane sugar. If the food to be tested is 
sweet or a sugar is thought to be present, make a solution and filter. Test 
the filtrate. If no reduction takes place, the sugar, if any, is cane sugar. 
Add a few drops of hydrochloric acid and boil. Neutralize with NaOH and 
perform Trommer's test. The cane sugar, if present, has been changed in 
part to grape sugar. 

Experiment V. To change starch to grape sugar. Place a little starch 
paste in a test tube, add a quantity of acid, and boil ten or fifteen minutes. 
Note how the mixture clears up, which indicates that the starch is changed 
to some soluble substance. Neutralize with NaOH and make Trommer's 
test.J 

• We shall not here discuss methods of distinguishing the reducing sugars 
from one another. If a sugar occurs in food, it is almost certain to be either 
cane sugar or grape sugar, except in the special cases of fermenting grain, wbicli 
would have malt sugar, and milk, which contains milk sugar. 

t The teacher may refer to any advanced text on the subject for the for- 
mula of Fehling's solution, which gives a better test. 

t This experiment illustrates how the grape sugar of commerce is manu- 
factured from cornstarch. 



FOOD AND DIGESTION 45 

Experiment VI. Two tests for proteins.* (a) The *' violet color'* test 
for protein. Shake up the beaten white of an egg (almost pure protein) in 
100 c.c. (3Mj oz.) of water. Place a little of the mixture in a test tube, add 
ten drops of caustic soda solution; then drop by drop add a little copper 
sulphate, shaking after each drop and noting the color changes. The violet 
color after several drops indicates protein. 

(b) TJie "orange color" test for protein. Add several drops of strong 
nitric acid to a quantity of the egg white solution as prepared in (a). A 
white precipitate occurs. Boil. The precipitate becomes yellow. Cool the 
test tube and add ammonia; the orange color resulting indicates protein. 

Experiment VII. To test for fats (roughly). A large quantity of fat 
or oil in a food, can, of course be recognized easily. A rough test for small 
quantities is as follows: mash the food to be tested in pure chloroform or 
ether. (If ether is used, beware of the flame.) Filter the liquid and place a 
drop on a clean white sheet of paper. If a grease spot is left after the 
chloroform or ether evaporates, the food contains fat. 

Experiment VIII. Food Analysis. "With the tests described above, 
analyze the foods your teacher gives you for sugar, starch, protein, and fats. 
Test onions, meat, liver, and milk. Test wheat flour in the following manner : 
make a small quantity of stiff dough. Take two tablespoonfuls and lay 
one aside for comparison later. Place the other in a sack of cheesecloth, 
and in a tumbler of water wash out all the starch possible, squeezing the 
rag vigorously and changing the wash-water occasionally. The gluten, a 
protein, is left in the rag as a sticky mass. Test this. Compare the quan- 
tity of gluten with that of the original spoonful of dough. What is the 
approximate proportion of protein to starch in wheat flour? 

Experiment IX. To show the change of starch to sugar in the mouth. 
Test a cracker to be sure that the specimen contains no sugar to start with. 
Chew a cracker for as long a time as possible without swallowing. Then 
place the resulting milky mixture of cracker and saliva in a test tube and 
test for sugar, using Trommer's or Fehling's test. (The saliva may be 
added to a quantity of starch paste in a test tube kept at body temperature 
for half an hour and then tested.) 

Experiment X. To show the digestion of protein, (a) First, make an 
artificial gastric juice in the following manner: to 100 c.c. of distilled 
water add % of 1 c.c. of strong hydrochloric acid. This makes a %% 
solution. To this add a teaspoonful of pepsin. 

(T)) Prepare several tubes of solid egg-white. To do this place in a test 
tube several small glass tubes about half an inch long. A pipette or eye- 
dropper, broken into short lengths, will do. Over the tubes pour the beaten 
white of an egg. Be sure the glass tubes become filled with egg-white. Now 

* The first test is best for proteins partly dissolved in liquids ; the second, 
for solid proteins. 



46 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



coagulate or harden the egg-white by setting the test tube in hot water. 
When the egg-white is hardened, remove the glass tubes, for example, by 
breaking the test tube. Clean off the glass tubes on the outside and place 
them in a beaker of artificial gastric juice and set them in a warm place 
until most or all of the solid egg-white has been dissolved (digested) out of 
the tubes. 

DIGESTION DEFINED AND ILLUSTEATED ' 

Why Food Must Be Digested. To prepare the food for 
absorption into the blood is the object of digestion. The follow- 
ing experiment will make the need of digestion clear. 




Experiment XI. Two sacks or tubes of a membrane such as parchment 
paper or the bladder of a pig are filled, one with starch paste and the other 
with grape sugar solution. The tubes are hung in vessels containing pure 
water. A test made of the water in the vessels after three or four hours (see 
II in the diagram) discloses the fact that the sugar was able to pass through 
the membrane and that the starch was unable to do so. The reason is that 
starch is insoluble and that sugar is soluble. Thus all foodstuffs must 
be changed from an insoluble form to one that will pass readily through 
a membrane. The membrane through which the foods must pass to get 
into the blood is the wall of the alimentary canal. 

In the experiment just described the parchment tubes repre- 
sent the alimentary canal and the surrounding water the blood. 
Digestion, then, consists of changing food into a form that will 
pass through the wall of the intestine into the blood. In other 
words, digestion prepares for absorption. 

THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS* 

The digestive organs consist of the parts of the alimentary 
canal and certain glands in connection with them. The parts 

* Only a genoral and bripf rloscription is here attpmpted. Tho student is 
referred to textbooks on physiology for a detailed discussion. 



FOOD AND DIGESTION 



47 



of the alimentary canal are mouth, throat or pharynx, ^llet 
or esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. 
Digestion is carried on mainly in the mouth, the stomach, and 
the small intestine. The 
most important chemical 
changes occur in the small in- 
testine, and it is mainly here 
that the food is absorbed by 
the blood. 

The Muscular Wall of 
the Alimentary Canal. The 
gullet, stomach, and intestines 
are simply tubes of muscle 
lined with mucous membrane. 
The muscle fibers are ar- 
ranged in two layers : the in- 
ner and thicker layer has the 
fibers running in rings around 
the tube ; in the thinner outer 
layer the fibers run length- 
wise. The muscle layers, es- 
pecially the circular ones, are 
responsible for the various 

movements of the alimentary canal by which the food is moved 
on and is mixed with the various digestive juices. 

The Glands of the Stomach and Intestines; the Villi. 
The parts of the alimentary canal differ in diameter, length, 
thickness of wall, and especially in the character of the lining. 
This consists of the mucous membrane, a smooth tissue only one 
cell thick in the stomach and the intestines, but thicker in the 
gullet. The inner lining of the gullet is smooth, but that of 
the stomach is interrupted by very numerous tiny pits or 
depressions, the gastric glands. These glands pour a juice upon 
the inner surface of the stomach just as the sweat glands pour 
sweat from the pores of the skin. Similar pit-like glands (called 
intestinal glands) are found in the small intestine. In addition 




LARGE 
INTESTINE 

APPENDIX 



PORTION 
5MALL INTESTINE 



48 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

to these depressions the small intestine has innumerable villi, 
tiny projections so numerous as to give the inner surface a vel- 
vety appearance, as one may easily observe by viewing a por- 
tion of the intestine of a dog or a cat under a hand lens. The 
villi are, we might say, tiny tongues that suck up the digested 
foods. They contain the fine blood tubes or capillaries that 
absorb the foods from the intestine. Thus, the gullet has a 
smooth lining, the stomach lias thousands of pockets or glands 
in its inner w^all, and the small intestine has both glands and villi. 

Other Glands. Besides the gastric glands, which se- 
crete gastric juice, and the intestinal glands, which secrete 
intestinal juice, there are glands outside the alimentary canal 
which communicate with it by a duct or ducts. These glands are 
the salivary glands, secreting saliva; the liver, secreting bile; 
and the pancreas, secreting pancreatic juice. The three pairs 
of salivary glands empty their secretion into the mouth ; the 
pancreas and liver pour their secretions together into the small 
intestine. 

Thus the mouth receives saliva, the stomach receives gastric 
juice, and the small intestine receives intestinal juice, pancreatic 
juice, and bile. All these juices have special work to do in 
digestion. 

HOW AND WHEEE DIGESTION TAKES PLACE 

In Experiments V and IX above, starch was changed to 
sugar by two different means : by acid and heat (Experiment V), 
and by saliva (Experiment IX). The change by saliva is called 
digestion, and is performed in the body by a digestive juice. 
No high heat is required, and in the mouth there is no acid. 
What, then, causes the change of starch to sugar? In the diges- 
tive juices mentioned there are substances called enzymes that 
have the power of producing chemical changes without them- 
selves being destroyed in those changes. Just as a match may be 
used to set off a train of gunpowder, so the enzymes, slowly, 
however, cause the foods to be digested. Thus starch is changed 
to malt sugar and malt sugar in turn to grape sugar. Proteins 



FOOD AND DIGESTION 



49 



and fats, also, are digested (See Experiment X above) and 
changed to soluble substances that are able to pass through the 
wall of the intestine into the blood. The following table is here 
given for reviev/ and for further reference: 



Organ' 



Glands 



Juices 



Enzymes 



Chemical Action 



Mouth 


Salivary 


Saliva 


Amylase 


Starch to Malt Sugar 


Stomach 


Gastric 


Gastric 


Pepsin 
Rennin 


Proteins to Peptones 
Curdles Milk 


Small 
Intes- 
tines 


Intestinal 

Pancreas 

Liver 


Intestinal 

Pancreatic 
Bile 


r* 'Inverting" 
< 
Erepsin 

["Amylase 

^ Trypsin 

Lipase 

None 


Cane sugar"! 

Milk sugar [t^g^^P^ 

Malt sugar J sugar 

Peptones to amino acids 

Starch to malt sugar 
Proteins to peptones, etc. 
Digests fat 

Helps other juices 



Notes on the table. It is seen from the table that fats and the sugars 
are digested only in the small intestine. Here also the digestion of the 
carbohydrates and proteins is completed. 

Starch is digested to malt sugar partly by saliva and partly by the 
pancreatic juice. 

Protein digestion is begun in the stomach (by gastric juice) and com- 
pleted in the* intestine (by pancreatic and intestinal juices). 

Pancreatic juice is capable of digesting fat, starch, and proteins. 

Very little food is absorbed before it reaches the small intestine. 

Grape sugar seems to be the only common food (except minerals) not 
needing digestion.* 

Summary. Foods must be digested, that is, made soluble 
and capable of passing through the wall of the intestine into the 
blood. The chewing and moistening of the food in the mouth 
prepare it for chemical digestion by the enzymes of the digestive 
juices. 

* In spite of this fact, for various reasons, grape sugar is not a desirable 
sugar for general consumption ; cane sugar is much to he preferred. 



50 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

CONTEOL OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 

Movements of the Alimentary Canal. (1) Chewing. 
Chewing is of extreme importance ; first, for breaking up the food 
so that the digestive juices may attack it ; second, for stimulating 
the salivary glands. 

(2) Movements of the Stomach. The stomach consists of two 
parts, especially with respect to its movement. The large end 
or fundus of the stomach (See the figure on page 47) merely 
stores the food, holding it in place with a slight contraction, 
which is almost continuous. The food, after being chewed and 
swallowed, lies in the fundus of the stomach for an hour or 
more before being mixed with gastric juice. The saliva is thus 
able to continue its action upon the starch for some time after 
the food reaches the stomach. 

The pyloric half of the stomach undergoes movements which 
serve to push the food, a little at a time, toward the small intes- 
tine and to mix it with gastric juice. The ring muscles of the 
stomach contract in waves, which begin in the middle and pass 
slowly toward the intestine. This movement is called peristalsis. 
When a small part of the food is sufficiently acid, the pylorus 
opens and the food passes on into the intestine. 

The action of the stomach is controlled in part by nerves. 
Anger, fear, and worry interfere with the movements of the 
stomach; in fact, sudden fright may stop its action entirely. 
One should not eat a hearty meal, therefore, when under a 
nervous strain. 

(3) Movements of the Small Intestine. The small intestine 
has at least two movements, one being peristalsis, which moves 
the food gently on. The other movement is a rhythmic contrac- 
tion, not in successive waves, and its effect is to mix the food 
more thoroughly with the juices. These movements are also 
under control of nerves and are subject to the effects of fear, 
anger, worry, and other unfavorable states of mind. For proper 
digestion, therefore, meal-time should be as pleasant as possible. 

Summary. The stomach consists of an enlarged end on the 



FOOD AND DIGESTION 51 

left side, the fundus, and a pyloric end on the right side. The 
food is stored for some time after a meal in the fundus, which 
does not undergo peristaltic movement. The food is mixed only 
in the pyloric end. The small intestine has two movements : a 
peristaltic or wave-like movement, by which the food is gently 
pushed on, and a rhythmic movement, by which the food is thor- 
oughly mixed. Anger, fear, and worry interfere with these 
normal movements. 

The Secretion of the Appetite Juices. (1) Saliva. Saliva 
has been called an appetite juice. It flows very freely 
while there is food in the mouth and especially Avhile the food 
is being chewed. Saliva will flow appreciably even when we 
smell or think of food, flowing most freely when we are con- 
scious of an agreeable taste. A meal tastefully prepared and 
deliciously flavored is conducive to health, as it stimulates 
the flow of the appetite juices. When the meal is over and 
chewing the food is at an end, the free flow of saliva stops. It 
is therefore well, in order to secure a thorough mixing of the 
food with saliva, to chew all the food to a thin pulp. The impor- 
tance of this is particularly apparent when we consider that 
digestion by saliva continues for some time in the fundus of 
the stomach, as was stated above. When the glands form or 
secrete the digestive juice for a considerable time, the saliva 
becomes poorer and poorer in enzymes ; that is, the juice becomes 
less powerful in its ability to digest starch. The continual 
chewijig of gum or eating between meals, therefore, weakens the 
digestive power of the saliva for the regular meal. 

(2) The Gastric Juice. The gastric juice is also an appetite 
juice, for it is made to flow during the smelling, tasting, and 
chewing of food. Its flow, also, is diminished by unpleasant 
and stimulated by pleasant states of mind. There is a good 
reason for the saying, ''A laugh is the best of sauces." 

The gastric juice must, however, continue to flow several 
hours after the meal. That its secretion may continue, there 
must be present in the stomach certain substances to stimulate 
the glands, since the nerves no longer act. Beef broth, dextrin, 



52 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

and peptones are among the substances that have this effect. The 
custom of beginning the meal with beef soup is therefore a good 
one. Since dextrin is present whenever starch begins to be 
digested, we have liere an additional reason why food sliould be 
thoroughly chewed. Peptones are present in the stomach when 
the digestion of proteins begins ; therefore, proteins should form 
a part of each meal. 

THE HYGIENE OF DIGESTION 

In the preceding paragraphs the effect of the state of mind 
on the flow of the appetite juices and on the movements of the 
stomach and small intestines has been pointed out. In this sec- 
tion some further health rules are added. 

Cleanliness of Food. One of the first qualities of attractive- 
ness of food is cleanliness. Food should be clean, not merely 
in appearance, but clean with respect to harmful bacteria. 
Every householder should consider carefully the subject of 
clean milk, bread, and meat, and clean kitchens. 

Quantity of Food. The quantity of food required varies 
with the individual constitution, the climate, and the occupation. 
As already stated, if much work is done there must be a plentiful 
supply of fuel with w^hich to do it. Again, in winter we exercise 
more than in other seasons ; therefore, in winter we need more 
food. In general the appetite is a good guide ; if people ate only 
when they were really hungry they would improve their health. 

The Balanced Ration. (1) Meaning. A general -term 
for balanced ration is mixed diet. Both expressions imply that 
our diet should consist of a variety of food. Everybody knows 
in a general way that it is desirable to vary his food from meal 
to meal and from day to day. Our tastes, too, tell us that it is 
not well to try to live on a very limited bill-of-fare. A balanced 
ration is one that furnishes the right proportion of building foods 
(protein) to energy foods (carbohydrates and fats). The pro- 
portion of carbohydrates to fats is not so important as the pro- 
portion of proteins to the energy foods. 

(2) Why We Cannot Live on Proteins Alone. In the early 



FOOD AND DIGESTION 53 

part of the chapter it was stated that protein furnishes heat as 
well as building material. Why, then, do we not live on protein 
or building foods alone? 

In the first place, the building foods are the most expensive 
of the foods, as, for example, meat, eggs, poultry, fish, milk, and 
cheese, all of which are rich in building foods. The energy 
foods, especially those of a starchy nature, are the cheapest. 

Secondly, our appetites would react against eating proteins 
only, day in and day out. This is simply Nature's way of saying 
that such a one-sided diet is not good for us. 

The third and strongest argument against an excessively pro- 
tein diet is its injuriousness. It is injurious because proteins, 
when burned in the body, leave waste matter that is hard for the 
kidneys to remove. Starch, sugar, and fat, the energy foods, 
"burn clean" in the body, forming carbon dioxide, which is 
thrown off from the lungs, and water, which is not harmful. 
But the building foods form much "ash" or waste substance 
which the kidneys have to eliminate. Thus an excess of proteins 
in the diet would overtax the kidneys. 

Besides these reasons, it may be stated that practically all the 
protein eaten is used up in the body at once, whereas excess of 
the energy foods is stored up in the body in the form of fat. 

(3) Hoiv Much Protein Should Be Consumed f The autho- 
rities are not in perfect agreement as to just what the propor- 
tion of building .to energy foods should be. Perhaps one-seventh 
of the total solids eaten, or 100 grams* of dry proteins furnish- 
ing 410 Calories, would represent a conservative proportion 
for a person using 2500 total Calories daily, though some 
authorities recommend a greater proportion of protein. It is 
certain, however, that it is desirable for growing children to con- 
sume a little more protein than the amount needed for repairing 
their tissues, since they must also add to their weight and 
stature. Grown persons will do well to consume a smaller pro- 
portion of building food ; the rest of the diet should be made up 

* 1 sram protein I'urnisbes aI)out 4.1 Calories. 
1 i^ram carboliydrate furnislies about 4.1 Calories. 
1 gram fat furnishes about 9.3 Calories. 



54 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

from the energy foods. One hundred and twenty-five grams of 
protein is furnished by the following daily rations (given in 
ounces) : 

(1) Beef (round), 13; butter, 3; jDotatoes, 6; bread, 22. 

(2) Pork (salt), 4; butter, 2; beans, 16; bread, 8. 

(3) Beef (neck), 10; butter, 1; milk (1 pt.), 16; potatoes, 16; oat- 
meal, 4; bread, 16; sugar, 3. 

In case of hard physical labor the diet must be increased prin- 
cipally by adding energy foods. 

Coarse Foods. The average diet for the healthy indi- 
vidual should not consist merely of concentrated, highly nutri- 
tious, and easily digestible foods. On the contrary, the food 
should have some bulk ; it should contain some coarse material. 
This is another argument for making the diet largely vegetable, 
since vegetable foods contain considerable indigestible cellulose 
or woody substances. Coarse foods are, moreover, good for the 
teeth because these tend to be more sound when stimulated by 
the work of chewing coarse foods. Again, such foods are of 
advantage in requiring the individual to chew the food a long 
time and mix it thoroughly with saliva. And, lastly, a certain 
amount of coarse food stimulates the peristaltic movement of 
stomach and intestines, thus helping to prevent constipation. 

Why Food Is Cooked. One of the great objects of cooking 
food is to sterilize it, that is, to kill any harmful germs of dis- 
ease that it may have gathered through careless handling on its 
way to the consumer or that may be in the food originally. To 
the latter class belong trichina in pork, tapeworm in pork and 
beef, and tuberculosis in milk and meats. Another purpose of 
cooking is to make the food more digestible. In the case of meats, 
heating dissolves the tough connective tissues, changing the 
fibers to gelatine. Some vegetable foods, such as grains, legumes, 
(peas, beans, and peanuts) and potatoes, are very indigestible 
when raw because the starch and proteins are encased in the 
indigestible cellulose walls of the plant cells. Cooking breaks 
up these cells and the starch and protein grains, thus allowing 



FOOD AND DIGESTION 55 

the digestive juices to get to the food substances to digest them. 
Cooking also develops flavor, a most important factor in the 
digestion of food. 

Fried Foods. Frying is an unhygienic method of cooking. 
The grease penetrates the mass of food and surrounds its 
particles to such an extent that the digestive juices cannot get 
at the food particles to digest them until the fat has first been 
digested. As fat is digested only in the intestine, the digestion 
of the grease-soaked foods is delayed until after its passage 
through the stomach. It is, of course, quite possible to fry 
meat in such a manner that only a small portion of it becomes 
saturated with grease; but this is impossible in the frying of 
cereal foods. 

Relation of Diet to the Kidneys. The kidneys remove from 
the blood not only protein wastes, but also other solids such 
as acids, salts, or even sugar, if present in large quantities. 
Avoid an excess of protein or sugar, since too much sugar 
causes the kidneys to eliminate sugar from the blood. Any 
ordinary quantity of sugar consumed is stored by the liver, 
but when the quantity is too great the liver cannot take care 
of the excess, and the result is an overloading of the blood with 
sugar. Much spices and condiments, such as pepper, mustard, 
and horseradish, also are injurious to the kidneys on account 
of the irritating action on the kidney cells. Table salt in excess 
also is injurious and should be avoided. The heating of fats 
to a high degree causes them to break up into irritating fatty 
acids, injurious to the digestive organs and the kidneys. 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

Explain the uses of food in the body. Compare the body with a stove. 
With an engine. Wherein does the body differ from either? Distinguish 
between classes of foods and kinds of foods. Name twenty kinds of food. 
Name the five classes of foods and state the uses of each in the body. What 
purpose can all of the three chief classes of foods serve in the body, and 
why? Why do we term carbohydrates and fats the energy foods? For what 
purpose are proteins only used? 



56 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Define fuel value of food. How can the fuel value of food be determined? 
Define Calories. Consult the proper tables on food values in this book and 
mention six foods poor in fuel value and six foods rich in fuel value. Show 
how the fuel value of a meal may be calculated. 

Describe appropriate tests by which you can show that cake contains 
protein, starch, fat, and cane sugar. 

Define digestion and show why food must be digested. Where are the 
gastric glands? The intestinal glands? The villi? Compare the inner 
surface of gullet, stomach, and small intestine. Name the digestive glands 
and the juices produced by them. State the function of each digestive juice. 
Where do digestion and absorption chiefly take place? 

Describe the movements of the stomach and of the small intestines dur- 
ing digestion. How may these movements be interfered with? What are 
the appetite juices and why are they so called? What may interfere with 
the proper secretion of these juices? What substances present in the stomach 
cause a continual secretion of gastric juice? 

What is meant by the proverb, ' ' A laugh is the best of sauces ' ' ? What 
is the hygienic value of appetizing appearance of food? Discuss the cleanli- 
ness of food. What is the main factor in determining the quantity of food 
which it is best to eat? Define balanced ration and give arguments in its 
favor. Make out several daily balanced rations, using the tables on food 
composition in this book. What is the hygienic value of coarse foods? 
Why is fried food unwholesome? What is the chief reason for cooking 
meats? For cooking vegetables? What are the harmful effects of eat- 
ing excessive amounts of protein? Of sugar? Of salts and condiments? 




-»-'<!^S'.t#.1 




THE YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER 



57 



CHAPTER II 

GENERAL RULES FOR THE KITCHEN 

CAEE OF EQUIPMENT 

Preparing Dishes for Washing. Scrape the food from the 
plates and other dishes and wipe them with a bit of soft paper 
or a rubber dish scraper ; pile dishes of one kind together ; wipe 
grease from knives, forks, and spoons with a paper. Place silver 
in one pile, steel knives in another. Rinse sugar from cups with 
a little hot water. 

Soaking Dishes. Soak dishes that are sugary or that have 
had gummy substances such as gelatin on them, in hot water; 
dishes that have been used for milk, eggs, or starch in cold 
water. Never put cold water into hot earthenware dishes. 

Dish Water. Fill the dish pan half full of hot water, 
and put in the dishcloth and a piece of white soap. A soap 
shaker will be found a great convenience. Wash the dishes, 
using a hand mop or a cloth on a fork. Put the hands in the 
water as little as possible. Fill another pan with clean hot 
water and rinse the dishes in it as soon as they are washed ; put 
them in a draining pan or rack, and dry with a clean soft towel ; 
or put the dishes in a pan or rack and scald ; then dry. Do not 
scald delicate china. 

Order of Work. 1. Glassware. Put the glasses into the 
water sidewise, dipping them so that the whole glass will be 
covered at once, for if one side is heated before another, un- 
equal expansion will result and cause them to break. Glassware 
and silver will be brighter if wiped from clean suds without 
being rinsed. Always use a dry towel free from lint. Cut glass 
should never be put into hot water. 

58 



GENERAL RULES FOR THE KITCHEN 59 

2. Silver. Do not put ivory or bone handles into water. 

3. China. Cups, saucers, plates, platters, and vegetable 
dishes. 

4. Kitchen Utensils. If necessary, use one of the commer- 
cial cleansing preparations on a cork for rough places. Clean 
seams in kitchen utensils with the dishcloth on a wooden skewer. 
Wash small utensils. Do not put the wheel of the dover egg 
beater in water. Kitchen utensils may be washed first, if so 
desired. 

5. Coffee Pots and Teapots. Take clean, fresh hot water 
for coffee pots and teapots. Clean the spouts carefully, dry 
thoroughly, and leave the lids open so that they may air. 

6. Milk Vessels. Rinse milk vessels in cold water, wash in 
clean soap suds, rinse, scald well with boiling water, then air. 
Milk bottles should not be scalded, but they may be covered with 
cold water and brought to the boiling point. Before boiling put 
a cloth under them. 

Polishing Knives and Forks. For steel knives use the 
special brick or tripoli. Dampen a cork, dip it in the polish- 
ing material, then rub the knife blade briskly on both sides; 
wash in soapy water and dry. If tripoli is used rub the knives 
dry with a soft cloth, but do not wash them. 

Cleaning Silver. Silver may be cleaned with fine whiting 
or silver polish. Put the powder on a damp cloth, rub the 
article to be cleaned well, then rub with a dry cloth and polish 
with a chamois skin. Use a soft brush to clean ornamental 
Avork on silverware. Rub spoons tarnished by egg with salt, 
then wash in water to which ammonia has been added. 

Silver may be cleaned by using the solution given below : 

1 quart water 4 tablespoonfuls of bicarbonate of soda 

2 tablespoonfuls salt a piece of zinc 

Use an aluminum pan. Secure a piece of zinc of a size to suit 
the pan you wish to use. A piece from an old stove board will 
do. Put it into the pan and add enough of the solution given 
above to cover the silver, which has been previously washed. Be 



go THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

sure that the silver touches the zinc or some other piece of silver 
that is in contact with it. Let it stand until the black portions 
of the silver have turned white (from one minute to one hour 
may be required), then remove, rinse well, and dry. 

Metal Utensils. Wash all utensils with a mild soap suds, 
rinse, and dry thoroughly. If the inside of aluminum utensils 
becomes dark, clean with lemon juice and salt. Do not scrape 
aluminum with a knife or other sharp instrument, but use a 
wooden spoon or a clothespin. Do not clean it with soda, ashes, 
lye, ammonia, washing powder, or a strong soap, as strong al- 
kalies tarnish aluminum. Keep both inside and outside clean. 
Handle enameled ware as though it were glass, to avoid chip- 
ping. Utensils of iron or steel should be coated with vaseline if 
not in constant use. 

The Bread -Board and Rolling -Pin. Scrape all dough and 
flour off, but do not cut the wood. Clean with cold water, using 
a small scrubbing brush. Dry well. Scald occasionally, but 
do not let the boards stand in water, as this softens the wood. 

The Refrigerator. Keep the refrigerator clean. Wipe the 
ice with a clean damp cloth before it is put into the box. Do 
not wrap ice in paper. Never put any dirty articles such as 
peach or grape boxes, or food with dust on it, into the refrigera- 
tor. Anything that is spilled in the chest should be wiped up 
immediately. 

Keep special dishes as food receptacles for the refrigerator. 

Wipe the inside of the box and the shelves and doors with a 
dry, clean cloth every day. 

Once a Aveek wash and scald the shelves, and wipe the inside 
of the box with a cloth wrung out of a soda solution, then with a 
clean, damp cloth, and dry with a clean cloth. 

The drain pipe catches dust on its damp surface and molds 
or bacteria may lodge there, so it should be well cleaned with 
a brush or a cloth on a wire. Scald it with the soda solution 
once a week. Clean the drain pan the same way. The slime 
that forms in the pan is the result of bacterial growth. Never 
connect the drain from the ice-'box with the sewers. 



GENERAL EULES FOR THE KITCHEN 61 

Dish Towels. Wash the dish towels and cloths with warm 
water and soap, rinse in warm water, and dry outside in the 
^n if the flies cannot reach them there, or hang in a current of 
air in the kitchen. Pour boiling water over them very often 
and wash and boil them at least once a week. 

Wooden Drain Boards and Tables. Wipe off the crumbs, 
then wash well, using a cloth, a good cleanser, and a small 
scrubbing brush. Scrub the board with the grain of the wood. 
Rinse well, then dry promptly. Scrub wooden tables in the 
same way. 

The Sink. As soon as the dishes have been washed, clean 
every part of the sink with hot, soapy water, using a skewer 
and a piece of cloth to cleanse the cracks. Scald and dry thor- 
oughly. Then wipe and dry the faucets. Once a day pour a 
kettle of boiling water through the drain, and once a week pour 
through it two quarts of boiling water to which has been added 
half a cup of washing soda. If much grease has been allowed 
to run down the sink, scald it with a gallon of boiling lye solu- 
tion (1 lb. concentrated lye to 5 gal. water). 

The Garbage Pail. Use a strong metal pail with a close 
fitting cover. Drain all garbage before putting it into the pail. 
Keep the garbage pail clean by washing it once a week with a 
hot soda solution, then airing it, and drying it thoroughly. A 
dirty garbage pail attracts flies and other insects in great num- 
bers. If the rules of the sanitary department of your city per- 
mit, line the bottom and sides of the garbage pail with several 
folds of newspapers, to lessen the labor in cleaning. 

DIRECTIONS FOR MEASURING 

Exact measurements are necessary for successful cooking. 
The regular measuring cup holds half a pint, and is marked in 
thirds, fourths, and halves. It is well to have a tin or aluminum 
cup and one of glass. Use the metal cup for anything that is 
hot. Teaspoons and tablespoons of regulation size are used in 
measuring. All measurements in this hook are level. 

All dry materials must be stirred or shaken before they are 



62 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

measured. Sift flour, meal, powdered sugar, confectioners' sugar, 
soda, and mustard, before measuring, then fill the cup by means 
of a spoon or scoop. Do not pack hard or shake down. Smooth 
the top with the back of a knife. 

To measure butter, lard, or other solid fats, pack hard in the 
cup. If it is very firm, shave or cut it into small bits before 
measuring. 

To measure spoonfuls of dry materials, dip the spoon in the 
material, lift it out, and smooth the top with the side of a knife. 
To measure half a spoonful, draw the knife through the cen- 
ter from the handle to the tip, pushing half the material off 
ithe side of the spoon. For a quarter of a spoonful divide the 
half spoonful in two, crosswise, marking a little nearer the handle 
than the center. For an eighth of a spoonful, mark diagonally 
across the quarter spoonful. Less than a sixteenth of a teaspoon- 
ful is called a few grains or a speck. 

Small quantities of flavoring or other liquids are measured 
by drops. The number of drops in a spoonful depends on the 
thickness of the liquid. There are sixty drops in a teaspoonful 
of liquids such as vanilla extract. Drops from a thick lipped 
bottle are larger than from a thin lipped one. In measuring 
liquids pour into the measure all that it will hold. 

TABLES OF MEASURES 

Abbreviations 

In recipes some words are shortened and for others letters only are usec^ 
tsp. stands for teaspoonful. tbsp. stands for tablespoonful. 



sp. stands for speck. 


gr. stands for grain. 


oz. stands for ounce. 


c. stands for cup. 


pt. stands for pint. 


qt. stands for quart. 


min. stands for minute. 


hr. stands for hour. 




Equivalents 


3 tsp. equal 1 tbsp. 


1 c. equals i pt. 


2 gills equal 1 c. 


2 pts. equal 1 qt 


4 c. equal 1 qt. 





GENERAL RULES FOR THE KITCHEN (33 

Equivalent Weights and Measures 

2 c. butter equal 1 lb. 

2| c. com meal equal 1 lb. 

4^ c. rye meal equal 1 lb. 

4J c. rolled oats equal 1 lb. 

4 c. pastry flour equal 1 lb. 

41 c. Graham flour equal 1 lb. 

3| c. whole wheat flour equal 1 lb. 

2 c. finely chopped meat equal 1 lb. 

2 c. granulated sugar equal 1 lb. 

2f e. powdered sugar equal 1 lb. 

3i c. confectioners ' sugar equal 1 lb. 

2§ c. brown sugar equal 1 lb. 

2 tbsp. granulated sugar equal 1 oz. 

2 tbsp. butter equal 1 oz. 

4 tbsp. flour equal 1 oz. 

1 c. stale bread crumbs equals 1 oz. 

THE FIRE 

Cooking is the application of heat to food. Food is cooked 
by exposure to heat by placing it directly over the fire, in the 
oven, in a pan over the flame, cooking in water, steam, or fat; 
or by heating very hot, then confining the heat, as in the fire- 
less cooker. These processes have different names. Name and 
describe the ones you know. 

Heat is produced in four ways : by the sun's rays, by friction, 
by electricity, and by burning or combustion. 

In cooking we are concerned chiefly with heat produced by 
burning or combustion. Combustion is another word for the 
process of burning. In order to have fire, three things are 
necessary : first, something to burn, which is called fuel ; second, 
heat enough to start the burning ; and third, air to keep it burn- 
ing. We have seen that air is necessary to life. The process 
going on in the body by which new tissue is built and wastes 
burned is really a process of combustion. Air is composed of 
two gases, oxygen and nitrogen ; oxygen is the element that is 
necessary for combustion. 

When burning goes on in the body or when fuel burns, waste 



g4 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

products are formed and thrown out. These are moisture, gases, 
and some solids. Carbon dioxide is one of the gases. Stoves are 
provided with flues for the escape of these substances. 

Important Points in Managing Stoves. Two things are 
needed for success in managing stoves : first, the right quantity 
of air; second, the proper provision for carrying off the wastes 
formed. In wood and coal stoves the air is secured by means of 
dampers. 

The Dampers. The chimney dampers are provided for the 
escape of air, vapors, and smoke, and should never be entirely 
closed, as disagreeable gases will then stay in the room. The oven 
damper turns the current of heat around the oven, instead of 
letting it enter the pipe directly. If you wish a quick, light fire, 
open the oven damper. The foot damper at the bottom lets air 
in to furnish oxygen for burning the fuel. When it is closed the 
fire burns slowly, with little heat. The check damper at the top 
of the stove sends a draft of cold air over the firebox, and checks 
the heat. Open it to cool the oven. 

Laying a Wood Fire. Remove all the ashes from the firebox 
and from the top, just under the lids. Open the dampers. Put 
enough slightly twisted paper in the bottom to nearly cover the 
grate. Lay over this some kindling, putting it crosswise so that 
air may circulate. Over this place small pieces of wood, then 
a few larger pieces. Put on the stove lids and light the fire by 
applying a match to the paper through the front grate. When 
the wood has begun to burn well put in more, and when this bums 
close the oven damper. Never use herosene to start a fire. Many 
persons are turned to death in this way. Use only safety matches 
in your home. Many lives and much property are lost hy the 
careless handling of matches. Keep matches out of the reach of 
little children. Most matches are poisonous. 

Regulating the Wood Stove. A good stove free from 
cracks and with a thick walled oven is needed if economy of fuel 
is desired. The flue must draw well. Place the stove out of 
drafts. Keep the ash pan clean. Remove the soot from below 
the oven, from the back, and from the pipe. Keep the space 



GENERAL RULES FOR THE KITCHEN 05 

under the lids free from ashes. Select dry, well-seasoned wood, 
as much of the heat from green wood is lost in drying it. 

With any stove one must exercise judgment in regulating the 
temperature. If the oven is too hot put a pan of cold water in it, 
take the lids off, and open the pipe and oven dampers. If the 
heat at the bottom of the oven is too great, put in a sheet of 
asbestos, or support the pan on a rack. If a slow fire is needed, 
partly close the damper in the flue and the one below the firebox. 

The Coal Stove. Lay the fire as directed, using enough 
crumpled paper to cover the grate well. When laying the wood 
be sure to have plenty at the ends as well as in the middle so that 
the coal will be kindled. Then put a little coal over the wood 
and light the fire. When the coal is burning well, add more 
coal, putting in a small quantity at a time. Too much coal at 
once will smother the fire and make it go out, or burn so slowly 
that little heat will be given off. Wh&n coal hums quickly with 
plenty of air it uses a large quantity of oxygen and so gives 
intense heat, while if it smolders slowly in a parched mass, little 
oxygen is used and much fuel is wasted. 

Never fill the firebox so full that the coal is higher than the 
lining. For a steady fire, rake out ashes or give the grate a turn, 
if it is a revolving one, fill the firebox not more than two-thirds 
full, and open the lower front and the flue dampers so that a 
good draft is formed. When the lower coals are red and glowing 
and the top layer black, close the dampers. As soon as the top 
layers begin to get red, add more coal. To heat the oven, close 
all but the oven and chimney dampers. Study your dampers 
carefully and turn them as needed. 

Much fuel is saved by keeping a continuous fire because the 
stove does not become cold and thus require rekindling. At 
night shake down the ashes, put on some fresh coal, and when 
the blue flame disappears close all the dampers. In the morning 
shake down the ashes, open the dampers to let the air in, and 
put on a little coal. If the fire is very low lay on a little kindling 
and light wood before you shake the ashes down, and when the 
coal is burning add more. 



66 THE SCIENCE OP HOME MAKING 

The Gas Stove. Examine your stove carefully and note 
the purpose of the different burners. Keep all cocks tightly 
closed when not in use. If there is any leakage turn off the gas 
at the main pipe when the stove is not in use. If the room seems 
filled with gas, air it well before lighting a match in it. 

To Light the Gas. Turn the cock and let the gas run for 
two or three seconds, then light a match and apply it to the 
center of the burner, holding it slightly above the burner. If 
the proper amount of air is supplied, the flame will be blue ; 
if insufficient air is admitted, the flame will be yellow; while if 
too much gas is admitted, the flame will be yellow and smoky. 
To light the oven, first open the oven door, then light the pilot, 
and turn on the burners. When they are burning clear and 
blue, turn off the pilot. If the gas burns yellow with a roaring 
noise, turn it off and relight after a fcAv moments. 

To Save Gas. Get the food ready to put over the fire before 
lighting the gas. As soon as the food is boiling lower the gas. 
Do not keep the teakettle boiling all the time. Turn off the 
heat when the water boils, and reheat it when necessary. 

Use the simmering burner turned low for slow cooking. 

Turn off the back burner of the oven when the oven is hot 
unless a high temperature is needed. Matches are always 
cheaper than gas. 

The Blue Flame Oil Stove. In these stoves the oil is con- 
verted into gas which burns with a hot blue flame. At first the 
oil burns as it does in an ordinary lamp. It is not so hot or 
clean then as it is a few minutes later, when the gas is formed. 

Be sure that the stove is level, that there is no draft over it, 
and that wicks and burners are kept clean. Rub the edge of 
wicks twice a week with a bit of paper or cloth. Fill the reser- 
voir frequently, using oil of good quality. Clean the reservoir 
and pipe occasionally to remove sediment. When you wish to 
raise or lower the wick while the stove is burning, do it slowly, 
so as to avoid a sudden rush of oil that will cause the flame to 
flare. Keep the oil in a cool place away from the stove. Never 
■fill the stove near a lighted lamp. Keep a box of sand or a fire 



GENEKAL RULES FOR THE KITCHEN 67 

extinguisher near the stove, for ivhile it is not dangerous if 
handled earefidly, one should take no risks. 

The Care of Stoves. Keep the burners clean and the air 
holes open. If anything spills on the stove, clean it at once. 
If the stove is kept clean and rubbed occasionally with a piece 
of flannel dipped in vaseline or an unsalted cooking fat, it will 
not require polishing. If polish, is desired, apply when the 
stove is only slightly warm, for if it is too hot it cannot be 
made bright. Polish the part farthest away from the body first 
so as to avoid soiling the clothing. 

Zinc discolors easily, so if water is spilled on it wipe it off 
immediately. Polish the zinc with silver polish or kerosene oil. 

THE FIRELESS COOKER 

A fireless cooker of a good make is a great saver of fuel and 
labor. The cooker must be well made, with closely fitting lids, 
and provided with tubes for the escape of steam, A stand fitted 
with rollers should be provided for the cooker. It should have 
a shelf on which the radiators may rest. 

The Care of the Cooker. Wipe moisture out of the cooker 
as soon as food is removed from it. If anything is spilled on 
a radiator wipe it off immediately. Clean the cooker carefully 
with fresh, warm, soapy water, never using dish water or the 
ordinary dishcloth. Dry well and keep it open when not in 
use as ver}^ disagreeable odors arise if the cooker is kept closed or 
becomes dirty. It should be sunned occasionally. If the radi- 
ators become dirty, heat them very hot, keeping each side over 
the flame long enough to burn off any food on the surface. 

If the radiators are kept in a damp or cold place, much fuel 
is needed to heat them and they are apt to crack. A shelf by 
the range or by a sunny window is a good place for them. 

Heating the Radiators. The temperature of the radiators 
has much to do with success in fireless cooking; metal radiators 
heat more quickly but lose their heat sooner than those made of 
soapstone. The former retain their heat sufficiently to allow 
baking for one hour and a half, while the soapstone disks may 



gg THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

be made hot eiiougli for baking for three hours. Heat leaves 
the cooker rapidly when the steam escape is left open ; therefore, 
the heat will not be held as long when cooking roasts, baked 
potatoes, or other foods that require drying, as when cooking 
cereals or soups. A small amount of food in the cooker cools 
more quickly than a large amount. It also dries more quickly, 
so that there is danger of overcooking. 

The time required for heating the radiators cannot be defi- 
nitely fixed as the fuel used is variable, but the average time 
needed to heat them over gas for baking cakes, or for cooking 
stews or cereals is fifteen minutes; for roasting meats, cooking 
rice, or baking potatoes and food of this class, twenty minutes. 
The heat of the radiator should be tested each time. If a little 
flour sprinkled on the radiator turns to a golden brown, the 
radiator is hot enough for biscuits or cakes ; if it turns to a very 
rich brown, it is hot enough for roasts or pies. If the flour does 
not brown, the radiator is not hot enough. Heavy white paper 
may be used for this test instead of flour. 

In using the cooker, follow the general recipes of this text 
and cook as directed under the different chapters on cooking. 
Where long cooking is needed, as for hams, reheat the radi- 
ators after about three hours but do not heat as hot as at first 
since the food itself is now very hot. 

A LIST OF EULES FOR THE KITCHEN 

Necessary Equipment 

An apron that comes down to the hem of the skirt and covers the sides 
well. It should have a bib to protect the front of the dress. Sleevelets if 
long sleeves are to be worn. Hand towel, half a yard long, with a loop to 
fasten it to apron. Cap if desired. Two holders, each six inches square. 

Order of Work 

1. Put on apron and sleevelets, pin the hair up neatly, and put on the 
cap if one is to be worn. 

. 3. If a wood fire is used, start fire and put on teakettle. If ga.s 
is used, note time when burner must be lighted. 



GENERAL RULES FOR THE KITCHEN 69 

3. Wash hands carefully, using nail brush. Clean nails with fresh 
wooden toothpick. 

4. Put large plate on table on which to place all small utensils used. 

5. Read over recipe and select utensils needed. 

6. Prepare pans or bowls if any are needed. 

7. Measure materials; first, dry substance, then fats, then liquids. 

8. Combine materials, following directions very carefully; put food 
on to cook. 

9. Put away supplies and wash utensils used. 



General Directions 

1. Teakettles should be left empty and the lids removed when not 
in use. 

2. The stove should be left as clean as knife and paper can make it. 
Never use dishcloth for cleaning stove. Be sure to leave stove dry so that 
it will not rust. Do not set anything on the stove when it is not in uso. 

3. Leave the table, utensils, and the bread and meat boards clean 
and dry. 

4. After using a brush, wash it and leave brush side down to dry. 

5. See that glass jars are wiped, and that covers are on securely before 
returning them to the closet or drawer. 

6. Use care in opening and closing all drawers so that utensils may 
remain in place. 

7. See that all utensils in the cabinet are hung on the proper hooks 
and placed on the shelves of cabinet in the order in which they belong. 

8. See that portable oven is left clean and dry after being used and 
is replaced on proper hooks. 

9. If water is spilled on the lloor, wipe it up at once with floor cloth. 
Then rinse cloth and place on rack to dry. 

10. Do not brush crumbs from table to floor. Before leaving the room 
brush up any crumbs or refuse on floor al)Out the table. 

11. Do not put water into the garbage pail. 

12. Keep a special teaspoon to use when tasting food. Do not put 
this spoon in food that is being prepared. 

13. Do not touch hair or face while cooking if it can be avoided. 
If it is necessary to use a handkerchief, wash the hands carefully after 
using it. 

14. Do not blow on food to cool it. 

lij. In the school kitchen, return all dishes and utensils that do not 
belon.g in desks to the supply table ; if any article is imperfect or can- 
not be cleaned, return it at once to the teacher. 



70 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Study the fuel or fuels in your locality, according to the questions 
given below: 

What is meant by combustion? Make a diagram of your stove, show- 
ing location of dampers. Give directions for laying fire in coal or v^ood 
stove. Give directions for selecting wood. How long does a cord of wood 
last your family? How much does it cost? What is the price per ton 
of coal? How much is needed a month for your family? 

Tell how to light the gas burner. What is the price per thousand 
cubic feet of gas in your town? Read your gas meter and compute the 
cost for a month. (See directions on back of gas bill.) By experiments 
determine the time in which two cubic feet of gas are used with your 
burner at full pressure. Find the time in which two cubic feet of gas 
are used for simmering on same burner. Estimate gas used in heating 
fireless cooker radiator. Suggest some means by which fuel may be saved. 

What would an oil stove cost in your comnmnity? What are some 
standard makes? How much would it save in comfort? How much oil 
is used in filling the reservoir of an oil stove? How much does it cost? 
Compare cost of oil and other fuel with which you are familiar. Where 
gas is used, compare cost and labor involved in use of oil and gas stoves. 

Is electricity available for cooking purposes in your locality? Compare 
the cost with that of other fuels. Can special rates be had in your city 
for electricity for cooking, ironing, and other household uses? Is the cook- 
ing apparatus expensive? Could you afford an electric chafing dish? Cof- 
fee percolator? Plate for heating water? Which would save the most 
labor in preparing breakfast or other light meal? 



CHAPTER III 

WATER AND PREPARED BEVERAGES 
LEMONADE 

(Review Protection of Water Supply, page 37) 
WATER AS A BEVERAGE 

Pure water is the most important of our foods. We could 
live without bread and meat for weeks, but we would die of 
thirst in a few days. 

Water may contain impurities that come from decaying 
vegetable or animal matter, or it may carry the germs of disease, 
or minute insects or their eggs, such as the hookworm. As 
it flows it gathers these impurities from the soil. It may also 
collect impurities from the dust of roofs and deposit them 
in cisterns. Where shallow wells are used water may wash filth 
into them, or seepage from closets or sinks may enter under the 
ground. In deep wells properly protected from insects and ani- 
mals by high curbs, the water is usually pure because the many 
layers of soil, gravel, and rock through which it has filtered 
have taken out the impurities. It has been said that running 
water purifies itself. This is true in a measure only, and it is 
a very slow process. Certain kinds of bacteria destroy some 
of the organic impurities, some of the solid impurities settle, 
and some of the germs are destroyed by strong sunshine or 
light. One cannot be sure, however, that all the dangerous 
germs have been removed by tlie flowing of water. 

Experiment I. To test for impurities in water. Pour a pint of water 
into a glass jar, fasten the top on tightly, put in a warm place for three 
days, then open it. If there is any foul odor it is an indication that 
decaying vegetable or animal substance is present. 

71 



72 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Even apparently pure water may contain germs only visible 
under the microscope. If there is any question as to the purity 
of the water, send a sample to the state health laboratory or 
to a chemist for analysis. 

To Destroy Disease Germs. If water is muddy let it settle, 
then pour off the clear water and boil it hard for five minutes. 
Put it into clean glass jars or bottles, cover it closely, and keep 
it cool. If it is exposed to dust when cooling, germs may be col- 
lected. Boiled water is flat because the air is driven off, and 
may be aerated by being poured from a pitcher held at some 
height into a drinking receptacle. Distilled water, if bottled 
under cleanly conditions, is very useful in times of typhoid or 
epidemics of like nature. 

Hard and Soft Water. ''Hard water" is water that con- 
tains a considerable amount of minerals. Very hard water is 
not good for drinking, as it disturbs the digestion and may 
cause kidney trouble. Hard water does not dissolve dirt as 
well as soft water does, and its minerals form an insoluble 
compound with soap put into it. In order to soften it add 
washing soda or borax before putting in the soap. 

Soft water is best for cleaning purposes and for many cook- 
ing operations. Cistern water, if caught in clean cisterns, is 
very good, as it is perfectly soft. 

General Suggestions. Drink plenty of clean, cool water, 
but do not have it very cold. If overheated, drink a little very 
slowly. Use individual or clean drinking cups, and pour the 
water from a pitcher or use a cooler. Never dip your cup into 
the vessel containing the general supply. Diphtheria, mumps, 
and other diseases may be contracted from a common drink- 
ing cup. 

It is better to take an abundant supply of water half an 
liour before eating than to drink a quantity at meals. Much 
water, cool enough to be agreeable, if taken with food 
will lower the temperature of the stomach and dilute 
the digestive juices. 



WATER AND PREPARED BEVERAGES 



73 



The connecting pipes from the street main to the honse in 
cities and towns may be of lead. Water standing over night 
may dissolve some of the lead, so that it is important to let the 
water from pipes run for several minutes before using it in 
the morning, or after a house has been unoccupied for some 
time. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What can you say of the importance of water? What impurities may be 
found in water? How do they enter? What diseases may be carried in 
water? Give a test for decaying matter in water. (See Experiment I.) 
What is the source of your water supply? Is it safe? Mention different 
sources from which water is obtained in your locality. Which is safest? 
How should a well be protected? A cistern? Visit a system of water 
works and find out the source of the supply. Is it pure? If not, how is 
it purified? What is a filtration plant? How may unsafe water be 
sterilized? Why is cistern water desirable? Why is an excess of minerals 
dangerous? What is meant by hard water? Soft water? Is the water at 
your home hard or soft? Why let the water in a city water system run 
through the pipes for several minutes before using it? Why are individual 
drinking cups needed? Have you individual cups and a cooler or sanitary 
fountains, in your school? Is the common drinking cup used? How much 
would it cost to change the conditions if they are objectionable? What 
can you say of drinking water with meals? 

WATER IN COOKING 

One of the most important substances with which we have 
to deal in cooking is water. We use it to soften the fibers and 
to carry heat. It has likewise the power of dissolving many 
substances, and so is both a carrier of flavor and a valuable 
cleansing agent. 

Experiment II. Put a teaspoonful of salt in a glass of cold water and 
stir until dissolved. Repeat the experiment, using hot watei-. In which did 
the salt dissolve more rapidly? 

Experiment III. Put a cup of v.ater in a small saucepan and heat 
gradually. When the water first begins to heat, small Inibbles of air form 
at the bottom and rise part of the way toward the top, but break as they 
reach the upi)er layer of cold water. As the water gets hotter, the air 



74 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

bubbles reach the top and break. As it gets still hotter, larger bubbles 
form. These are steam bubbles, which as they reach the cooler water at 
the top, turn back into water. This process, which goes on for some time, 
is called simmering. If you have a thermometer, take the temperature of 
the water when it is bubbling this way. You will find that it is about 
185° F. The water will grow still hotter, and finally the bubbles will 
reach the top and break, forming steam. The water is then boiling. 

The Boiling Point of Water. The boiling temperature of 
water is 212° F. at the sea level, but in a higher altitude the 
steam will form before the water reaches this temperature, as 
the pressure of the air is less. For most places we may consider 
that water boils at 212° F. The true steam that forms at the 
spout- of the teakettle is invisible. After the steam is cooled 
a little, it makes vapor — a gas that we can see. 

Two kinds of thermometers are in use — the Fahrenheit with the freez- 
ing point at 32° and the boiling point at 212° at the sea level, and the 
Centigrade with 0° for freezing point and 100° for boiling point. The 
Fahrenheit thermometer is more generally used, but the Centigrade is 
used in most scientific work on account of the simplicity of its mark- 
ings. How many degrees are there between the freezing and boiling 
points on the Fahrenheit scale? On the Centigrade? How many degrees 
F. equal 100 C? How could you change F. to C? How C. to F.? (See 
Arithmetic.) 

Experiment IV. Add two tablespoonfuls of sawdust to one cup of 
water, bring to the boiling point, and test the temperature. For this pur- 
pose, use a high temperature thermometer with the tip of each end pro- 
tected by a cork. Notice the movement of the sawdust. "What does this 
prove? 

Experiment V. Add two tablespoonfuls of salt to one cup of water, 
bring to the boiling point, and test the temperature. 

Compare the boiling temperatures in Experiments III, IV, 
and V. Which was hottest? Which is liottest — boiling water, 
syrup, or mush ? When would contents of double boiler become 
hotter, over a kettle containing boiling salted water, or over 
plain boiling water ? 

Effect of Heat on Water. Fresh water contains air, which 
gives it a fresh, pleasant taste. When it is heated the air is 
gradually driven off, and after long continued heating it loses so 



WATER AND PREPARED BEVERAGES 75 

much air that it becomes flat. For this reason water that has 
just reached the boiling point should be used for beverages and 
for other cooking purposes. 

Evaporation of Water. The changing of water to a gas or 
vapor is continually going on from the surface of lakes, river^ 
and streams. During this change much heat is absorbed and the 
air and surroundings are cooled. This is noticeable when a lawn 
or porch is sprinkled on a hot day. The higher the wind the 
more rapid the evaporation. Why? People in hot climates 
where ice is scarce make use of the principle of evaporation in 
cooling food and beverages. You may have seen a Mexican water 
cooler made of porous earthenware so that the water may slowly 
escape through its pores and evaporate, thus cooling the contents. 
The desert water bag, made of heavy porous cotton, acts on this 
principle and is much used by travelers in the West. Again, 
when a wet cloth is wrapped about a jar of butter to keep it cool, 
this principle is applied. In the Southwest a substitute for a 
refrigerator is made on this plan. 

Ice. Water may be found as a liquid — the form in which 
we know it best ; as a gas — in steam and clouds ; and as a solid— 
in ice. It becomes a solid from the effect of cold, or rather from 
the loss of heat. The freezing point of water is 32° F. Ice is 
of great use in preserving food. By mixing it with salt a freez- 
ing mixture is made. We are all familiar with the fact that 
water pipes burst from being frozen. Let us see why this is so. 

Contraction and Expansion. In cooking, it is necessary to 
understand the principles of contraction and expansion due to 
a change of temperature. Contraction is the drawing together 
of the fine particles that make up a substance. Expansion is 
the spreading apart of these particles. We say that cold con- 
tracts and heat expands. For example, pastry is made by using 
ice cold water and by retaining as much air as possible. When 
the mixture is put into a hot oven it rises to several times its 
first height. This is an example of expansion by heating. If a 
toy balloon filled with gas is brought from the cold outdoor air 
into a warm room, the gas expands so that it bursts the covering. 



76 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

"Water contracts with cold like other substances until it is 
near the freezing point, when it suddenly expands, resulting in 
more ice than the original amount of water. This is the reason 
that pipes burst when water in them freezes. 

Boiling" Water. Keep the teakettle clean. If in a region 
where lime is deposited in the kettle, it may be soaked occa- 
sionally in moderately strong vinegar over night to soften the 
lime. Keep it covered and the steam will be condensed so that 
heat will be saved. When making tea or other beverages be 
ready to use the water the moment that it boils. Why? Never 
use water from hot water pipes in preparing food. Why ? 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

What foods are largely water? Why do we uFe water in cooking? What 
is the meaning of the term dissolved? What is a solvent? Describe the 
changes that take place when water is heated to the boiling point? What 
is the simmering temperature? The boiling point at sea level? Have you 
been in a region where the altitude was so great that water boiled before it 
reached this temperature? In what sections of our country could this hap- 
pen? (See Geography.) What is the effect of heat on water? Why does 
boiled water taste flat? 

What is meant by evaporation? What use do you make of cooling by 
evaporation? Have you ever seen a desert water bag? Bring such a bag 
to school and try keeping water in it during the day. 

In what three forms may water exist ? What form of water is each of the 
following: rain, hail, dew, frost, snow, cloud, and fog? Why do freezing 
water pipes burst? Is the ice you use at home natural or artificial? Is 
it clean and safe? Do you put it directly into water which you drink? 
(Visit the artificial ice factory if possible.) What process does water go 
through in an artificial ice factory before being frozen? Why? Tell how 
to boil water. How to clean a teakettle. 

TEA 

Tea is the dried leaf of the tea plant, a shrub that grows in 
China, Japan, and India. A very little tea is raised in South 
Carolina, also. Tea is of different grades, depending on the stage 
at which it is picked : the tender fresh leaves or buds just unfold- 
ing form the Pekoes; tliose a little older make Souchong, and 



WATER AND PREPARED BEVERAGES 



77 



those still older, Congou. Trade names are given to the different 
teas according to the method of preparation. 

The green teas were formerly colored, but this is now illegal. 
They are nj longer bright but a dull yellow green. Green tea 
is not fermented in preparation for drinking ; it therefore makes 
a harsh tea. It contains a high per cent of tannic acid, a sub- 
stance that, in large quantity, interferes with digestion. Gun 




A GOOD DESIGN OF SILVER TEA SERVICE 

Powder, Young Hyson, Imperial, Green Japan, and uncolored 
Japan are some of the green teas. 

The black teas undergo a process of fermentation by which 
some of the tannic acid is rendered insoluble. Because of this 
they are less apt to disturb digestion. English Breakfast, Pekoe, 
and Oolong are important black teas. All teas are mildly stimu- 
lating, as they contain theine, which has the effect of quickening 
or stimulating the action of the nerves. 

Selecting Tea. In buying tea, choose the variety most 
pleasing to your taste. It should be free from stems and from 
fine powdered particles. When put in boiling water the leaves 
should not entirely unroll in a short time. Soak a pinch of tea, 
unroll the leaves, and note their size and shape. Also note pro- 



78 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

portion of large to small leaves and stems. A very low priced 
tea is not really cheap. More is needed to give the required 
strength than with more expensive teas and it also yields more 
tannin, which we wish to avoid. Tea does not keep well, so 
it should be bought in small quantities and kept in air-tight 
glass jars. 

* Tea (Class Recipe) f 

1 tsp. tea 1 c. boiling water 

A good grade of English Breakfast with a flavoring of Orange 
Pekoe makes a very pleasing tea. Use an earthenware pot for making 
tea (never make tea in a metal pot as the tannic acid acts upon the 

metal. See Experiment VIII, page 79.) Keep 
the pot very clean. Before making tea scald the 
pot by pouring boiling water into it. Put on 
the lid and let stand for a moment. Pour a 
little water out through the spout; take off the 
lid and pour out the remainder of the water. 
In measuring, pour a cup of water into the pot 
and estimate the amount by seeing how far the 
water rises on the sides of the pot. Empty pot, 
put the right amount of tea into the hot pot, 
and pour in as much boiling water as was used 
in the trial measuring process. Put on the lid, 
let stand (not over the fire) for three minutes, 
pour through a tea strainer into warm cups, 
A SILVER TEA BALL and serve. Less tea may be used if weaker tea 

is desired. Never steep tea more than five min- 
utes, as long steeping extracts too much tannin. 

Tea may also be made at the table in a cup, by the use of a tea ball. 
The ball should not be more than two-thirds full of tea leaves. 

Experiment VI. After tea has been left in a pot for ten minutes 
examine it; note the color; taste it. How does it affect the tongue? Boil 
a little of the tea and leaves for a few minutes in a small enameled sauce- 
pan. Note color and taste. Never use tea that has boiled. 

* For starred recipes, see page 8. 

t The term Class Recipe denotes that the quantity of ingredients indicated 
in the text is the amount necessary for successful manipulation by two pupils, 
working together. The same quantity is also required where individual work is 
done, except in dealing with whole apples, tomatoes, etc. The term Class Recipe 
i/>. etc.. means that the given quantity of ingredients should be divided for bet- 
ter adaptation for class use. In some cases, also, where the ingredients are ex- 
pensive or where the quantity Indicated would be large, the class recipe is given 
for a group of four or six j)upils. Recipes not marked Class Recipe are adapted 
for familv use and can bo divided by the pupils after practice with class recipes. 




WATEE AND PREPAEED BEVEEAGES 79 

Experiment VII. Fill a glass one-third full of tea that has been 
steeped three minutes and another one-third full of tea that has been steeped 
ten minutes. To each glass add one teaspoonful of ferrous sulphate solu- 
tion; stir, let settle, and note the black precipitate that forms. This is 
tannate of iron. The quantity denotes the amount of tannin in the tea. 
Which glass shows the greater quantity? Test some of the boiled tea from 
Experiment VI in the same manner. 

Experiment VIII. Pour a little tea into an old worn tin cup or pie 
plate. Account for result. Why not use a tin teapot? 

COFFEE 

Coffee is the berry of the coffee shrub which grows in Arabia, 
Abyssinia, other parts of the eastern hemisphere, and in Central 
and South America. It is sold under different names that once 
denoted the region from which it came. Mocha coffee once came 
from Arabia but the name is now used to denote a certain type 
of berry — a small, dark, high-grade berry of great strength. A 
large pale berry is of the Java type. Santos is a South American 
coffee of this type. Most of the ready roasted coffee is a blend — 
a mixture of different varieties. 

Coffee, like tea, is a stimulant. It contains caffeine, the stimu- 
lating effect of which is very much the same as that of the stimu- 
lating element of tea. It also contains tannic acid, although 
when quickly made it probably has less tannic acid than tea. To 
some persons coffee is very irritating to the digestion on account 
of the oil it contains. Children do not require stimulants and 
should avoid tea and coffee. 

Selecting Coffee. If coffee is to be roasted at home it is 
well to buy a year's supply at one time as raw coffee improves 
with keeping. Coffee roasted to a rich brown color gives the best 
flavor. Spread the coffee on a large pan, place it in a moderately 
hot oven, and stir frequently. Roasted coffee should be bought 
in small quantities as it deteriorates rapidly. Keep coffee in air- 
tight jars and grind as needed. 

Experiment IX. Adulterated Coffee. Some ready ground coffee is 
adulterated by the addition of chicory or cereals. 

To test for these impurities add a spoonful of ground coffee to a glass 



go THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

of cold water. If the coffee is pure it will float and will not discolor the 
water for several minutes. If adulterated, it will sink to the bottom, leav- 
ing a brown stain in the water. 

Making Coffee. Select well ripened, freshly roasted coffee 
of a good grade, and use a perfectly clean enameled or aluminum 
coffee pot. Coffee contains an oil that quickly becomes rancid 
if the pot is not thoroughly cleaned each time after using. A pot 
with a lip is easier to clean than one with a spout. For use in a 
drip pot or percolator, coft'ee should be finely ground ; for boiled 
coffee the berry should be ground to a medium fineness. Serve 
coffee in warm cups while it is fresh and hot. If milk or cream 
is used it should be warmed before it is poured into the coffee. 

* Boiled Coffee (Class Recipe Vo) 
Va c. ground coffee 2^4 c- water 

Scald the coffee pot. Put in the coffee and add 2 cups cold water. Stir. 
Then boil for two minutes. Push it to the back of the stove. Pour out 
a half cup of coffee; return it to the pot. Add ^4 cup cold water and let 
stand for ten minutes to settle. 

Coffee may he cleared with egg. Take one tablespoonful of egg-white, 
or 1 teaspocnful and the shell. (If the shell is to be used, wash the egg 
thoroughly before breaking.) Mix coffee, egg, and 2 tablespoonfuls of 
cold water, and stir well. Add the water and proceed as above. Why does 
adding egg to coffee clear it? (See Clearing Soup Stock, page 174.) 

Filtered Coffee 

1 c. coffee 6 c. boiling water 

Use percolator or French drip pot. 
Scald the drip coffee pot, put in the cof- 
fee, and add the water a cup at a time. Keep 
warm over hot water till ready to serve. If a 
percolator is used, follow the directions accom- 
COFFEE PERCOLATOR panying it. 

Coffee Substitutes. Some of the coffee substitutes are low- 
grade cereals combined with waste coffee. Others are purely 
cereal and have none of the stimulating properties of pure 
coffee except the mild stimulation due to the hot water they 
contain. 




WATER AND PREPARED BEVERAGES 81 

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE 

COMrOSITION 

Carbn- Calories 

Water Protein P'at hydrate Ash per lb. 

Coeoa 4.<i 21.6 . 28.9 37.7 7.2 2.320 

Chocolate 5.9 12.9 48.7 30.3 2.2 2860 

Cocoa and chocolate are made from the bean of the cocoa tree. 
They are prepared by roasting and crushing the beans. In cocoa 
a part of the fat is removed ; in chocolate it is all retained. Both 
cocoa and chocolate have starch added and in some preparations 
sugar and flavoring also are added. Pure chocolate is very 
nutritious, but unless made with milk the beverage is only 
slightly nourishing, as such a small proportion of the solid is 
used. Cocoa is less nourishing than chocolate. Both beverages 
contain theohrominc, a stimulant like caffein but much weaker. 
These beverages should be taken very slowly on account of the 
starch they contain. Starchy foods must stay in the mouth long 
enough for the saliva to become mixed with them. They fre- 
ciuently disturb digestion on account of the fat they contain, 
which seems to disagree with many people. 

Selecting" Chocolate. For cooking purposes, choose the un- 
sweetened chocolate, as it is less expensive. Keep chocolate and 
cocoa in the ice-box in hot weather or they may become rancid. 
V/hy? 

* Cocoa (Class Recipe V4) 

iy2 tbsp. cocoa 2 c. boiling water 

1% tbsp. sugar 2 c. scalded milk 

Pinch of salt 

Fill the lower part of a double boiler one-third full of boiling water. 
Then heat the milk in the boiler until fine bubbles appear around the 
edges. If a thermometer is at hand, test the temperature of the milk 
when scalded. Mix the cocoa and sugar in a small, smooth saucepan; 
add the boiling w^ater gradually, stirring all the time. When the mix- 
ture is smooth, put it on the fire and boil for three minutes, then add 
the cocoa mixture to the milk. Stir well and cook for ten minutes 
in double boiler. If not needed for immediate service keep hot over 
a low fire. Before serving remove the skin that forms on the top and 



82 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

beat with a dover egg beater till frothy. Pour into warm cups. A 
spoonful of whipped cream may be put on each cup. 

Whipped Cream. Use a heavy cream at least twenty-four hours old if 
possible. If fresh cream is used chill for at least two hours. Put the 
cream into a bowl and surround with crushed ice unless the weather is very 
cold. If you wish to cool it quickly, mix coarse salt with the ice. If 
cream is too thick, dilute it with sweet milk. If warm, thick cream is 
beaten it will be very oily and may turn to butter. Beat with a dover 
egg beater until the mixture will hold its shape. If it is to be served with 
chocolate, fold in, after whipping, two tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar 
and one-half teaspoon ful of vanilla for each cup of whipped cream. One 
cup of plain cream will be enough for twenty cups of chocolate. 

* Chocolate (Class Recipe 1/4) 

1% squares of bitter chocolate 4 tbsp. sugar 

1 c. boiling water 3 c. scalded milk 

% tsp. vanilla Pinch of salt 

Put the sugar, salt, and chocolate (cut in pieces) into a small saucepan. 
Put this saucepan into another pan of hot water, and heat until the chocolate 
melts. Add boiling water gradually, stirring all the time. Boil over the 
fire for one minute. Finish as directed for cocoa. Add flavoring when ready 
to serve. Serve with whipped cream. 

» 

COLD BEVERAGES 

* Lemonade No. 1 (Class Recipe Vi) 

2 c. water 1 c. sugar 

^ c. lemon juice 

Scrub the lemons well with a vegetable brush. Dry, cut in half, and 
squeeze, using a glass lemon squeezer. Boil sugar and water together for 
five minutes. Add the lemon juice and strain through a cheesecloth. Keep 
in a cold place. When ready to serve, add the syrup to ice water, using 
enough to give the desired acidity. This recipe will make one quart of 
lemonade. 

* Lemonade No. 2. (Class Recipe) 

1 c. cold water 2 tbsp. lemon juice 

4 tbsp. sugar 

Prepare lemon juice as directed above, and strain. Mix juice and sugar, 
stir well, add water, and stir until dissolved. Half a slice of lemon, a piece 
of pineapple, a cherry, or a fresh strawberry, may be added to each glass. 



WATER AND PREPARED BEVERAGES 83 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Where is tea grown ? Make a collection of tea samples, comparing 
color, flavor, and price. Make into tea and compare quality. What is the 
difference between green and black tea? Tell how to select tea. What 
brand of tea is used in your home? What does it cost? What are the 
important points in making tea? What is the proportion of tea to water? 
What is meant by tannin or tannic acid? How can you make tea so as 
to get the least possible amount of tannin? Why is tannin objectionable? 
Why does tea stimulate the nerves? 

From what country does your merchant get his coffee? What type of 
coffee do you use? Why is freshly roasted and ground coffee the most 
satisfactory? What is the proportion of coffee to water for filtered coffee? 
For boiled coffee? Tell how to make good coffee. Why does a coffee pot 
that is not kept clean spoil the flavor of the coffee? Give the test for 
adulterated coffee. Why are coffee and tea bad for young people? Describe 
some of the coffee substitutes. 

What is chocolate? What is its composition? Which has the higher food 
value — chocolate or cocoa? Why? Why should chocolate be kept in the ice 
box in warm weather ? Why do chocolate and cocoa sometimes disturb the diges- 
tion? What is the proportion of milk to water in chocolate? In cocoa? 
The proportion of chocolate to liquid? Cocoa to liquid? Why must both 
chocolate and cocoa be boiled? How is milk scalded? Why are they 
skimmed if allowed to stand before serving? 

Give directions for whipping cream. Why is it cooled before whipping? 
Is it necessary to surround it with ice? 

Take the recipe given, as a model and write a recipe for chocolate, using 
equal quantities of milk and water and one-half square of chocolate to each 
cup of liquid. Make chocolate by this recipe and compare with that made 
by given recipe. Which is cheaper? How much would a quart of each 
cost? Is cocoa cheaper than chocolate? 

Supplementary Becipes 

Iced Tea (p. 378) Coffee in Quantity (p. 359) 

After Dinner Coffee (p. 359) Caterer's Punch (p. 374) 



CHAPTER IV 

FRUITS 

CX)MPOSITION OF FEUITS 

CARBOHY- CALORIES 

WATER TROTEIX TAT DRATBS FIBER ASH PER LB. 

Apple 84.6 A .5 14.2 1.2 .3 290 

Banana 75.3 1.3 .6 22. .1 .8 460 

Grapes 79. 1.0 ... 15.5 2.5 .5 

Orange 86.9 .8 .2 11.6 ... .5 375 

Peach 89.4 .7 .1 9.4 3.6 .4 190 

Pineapple 89.3 .4 ... 9.7 

Plum 74.5 .9 ... 19.1 .5 ... 370 

Strawberry 90.4 1. .6 7.4 1.4 .6 180 

Dates 20.8 4.4 ... 65.7 5.5 1.5 

Figs, uncooked 18.8 4.3 .3 74.2 ... 24. 1475 

Prunes, uncooked 22.3 2.1 ... 73.3 ... 2.3 1400 

Raisins 14.6 2.6 3.3 76.1 ... 3.4 1605 

Experiment T. Hold a thin slice of apple in the light and examine its 
structure carefully. Compare with structure of vegetables. 

Experiment II. Pare and weigh an apple. Cut in thin slices, and dry 
well in the sun or on back of range. Weigh again and note the loss of 
weight; of what did the lost weight consist? Note amount of water 
absorbed when cooking dried fruit. 

Fresh fruits are among the most valuable articles in the diet. 
Except in the case of the banana and some of the very sweet 
fruits they are not rich in any of the three main food elements 
but are valuable for the acids and salts they supply. These ele- 
ments keep the blood in a good condition; fruits also stimulate 
the activity of the bowels because of the presence of cellulose. 
In green fruit the carbohydrate is in an indigestible form and 
the cellulose is very hard. When the fruit ripens, the cellulose 
is softened and the carbohydrate is largely changed to sugar. 
Cooking fruit brings about the same changes. 

84 



FRUITS 85 

No menu is well planned that does not contain fruit. The 
selection will depend upon the season, location, and price of 
fruit. 

Selecting Fresh Fruit. Buy smooth, clean, well-ripened 
fruit that is not molded, bruised, or wilted. 

Do not buy fruit that has been exposed to flies or dust. If 
there is a place for storage and a quantity can be used, it is 
nuich cheaper to buy such fruits as oranges and apples by the 
box. Keep in a cool place. 

Serving Fresh Fruit. Use a fruit plate and silver knives 
when serving such fruit as peaches, bananas, pears, and apples. 
Finger bowls are often used after the fruit course, and paper 
napkins may be provided in order that the linen may not be 
stained. Be sure the fruit has been carefully inspected and that 
all decayed portions have been removed. Always wash fruit 
hefore serving. Serve it well cooled unless fresh from the 
orchard. Garnish with peach or grape leaves. 

UNCOOKED FRUITS 

Apples. Serve only mellow apples raw. Wipe fresh apples with a 
damp cloth and polish them with a soft, dry one. If apples are hard, 
they should be baked, steamed, or stewed, 

*Berries. Discard all imperfect berries. Place those to be served in a 
sieve and immerse for a moment in a bowl of cold water. If washed be- 
fore the hulls are removed less juice will be lost. Strawberries may 
require several waters. 

Grapes. If, after washing, they still seem dusty, or if they have been 
exposed to flies, plunge for a moment into boiling water, then into very 
cold water. Separate the bunches with scissors. 

Peaches. Rub off the down. If they are to be sliced, remove skin and 
cut just before serving and sprinkle at once with sugar. 

*Oranges. Cut in half at right angles to the stem end and place a half 
on each plate. Lay an orange spoon on the plate at the side of the halt 
orange. If served in sections oranges should be peeled. All the tough white 
fiber should then be removed. With a sharp knife remove each section, dis- 
carding the skin between the sections. (Never slice oranges horizontally as 
the inner skin is not digestible.) Sprinkle with sugar, cool for one hour, 
then serve. 



86 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Grape Fruit. Cut the fruit in half with a pointed knife, separate the 
pulp from the tough skin around the side; then loosen the tough skin in the 
center and with very pointed scissors cut it loose at the bottom and lift it 
out. Place the grape fruit in a large cocktail glass or on a fruit plate. 
Sprinkle with sugar, and put in a cool place for at least ten minutes before 
serving. 

Bananas. Select soft, ripe bananas with unbroken skins and cut them 
from the stem. It is well to scrape the banana after peeling it to remove 
the white fiber of which there is very little in well ripened fruit. Bananas 
are not easy to digest, and so should be well chewed. 

Lemons. Scrub lemons well with a brush and dry carefully. Never 
put the skin into the mouth as lemons and oranges carry many bacteria in 
the pores of their skins. Slice or cut into sections. 

Pineapple, Pare the fruit and take out the eyes with a pointed knife. 
Pull from the core with a silver fork, then arrange in a glass dish and 
sprinkle with sugar. Set in a cold place for an hour. 

Cantaloupes. Cantaloupes should be thoroughly cooled, washed, and 
dried; then cut and the seeds carefully removed just before serving. Serve 
small ones in halves; large ones in pieces of suitable size. Use a plate 
larger than a fruit plate. Never put ice in the cantaloupe as it spoils the 
flavor. Serve with a silver sjioon and pass salt with it. 

A Fruit CocMail. A mixture of fruits that blend well together is 
often used for a first course at luncheons. 

Combine equal parts of sliced peaches, strawberries cut in half, and 
pineapple; or banana, orange pulp, and grapes, with the seeds removed, 
cut in half (orange juice may be aoJed if desired) ; or fresh cherries 
(stoned), grape fruit, orange pulp, and pineapple. Sweeten to taste, but 
do not make too sweet, for a first course should stimulate the appetite and 
therefore should be tart rather than sweet. Serve in small glasses placed 
in larger ones containing ice, or in sherbet cups set on a doily on a fruit 
plate. 

COOKED FEUITS 
* Baked Apples 

The secret in baking apples is to select firm, juicy ones, to baste them 
frequently, and to have the oven hot. 

Wash and core juicy, sour apples. Mealy ones will not keep their shape. 
Place in a smooth enameled or earthenware dish or pan, never in tin. Why? 
(See Experiment VIII, page 79.) Fill the center cavity of each apple with 
sugar, sprinkle a very little cinnamon over each, and pour in enough hot 
water to barely cover the bottom of the dish. Put them in a hot oven and 
baste, by pouring the syrup in the pan over them every ten minutes. The 



FRUITS 



87 



syrup must be rather thick. If it is too low, add a little hot water but 
never have much in the pan at once. Cook until the apples are very 
tender when tried with a toothpick. When the apples are done, arrange 
them in a dish. Let the syrup cool slightly, then pour a little over and 
in the center of each apple. The syrup should jelly when cold. If cooking 
apples that burst as soon as they get very hot, a narrow strip of skin should 
be cut off all around the center before they are put in the oven. 

Pears 

Cut in half and bake as directed for apples. 

* Apple Compote (Class Recipe V4) 

8 or 9 tart apples 1 c. sugar 

1 stick cinnamon 1 c. water 

Make syrup of water and sugar. Add cinnamon and boil for ten min- 
utes. Peel and core apples. Add syrup. Let simmer until almost clear. 
Lift from the syrup, and cook in the oven for a few moments. Boil the 
syrup down until it jellies when cool. Serve apples with jelly in center. 

Apple Sauce (Class Recipe 1/4) 

8 medium-sized, tart apples 1 c. sugar 

1 inch of stick cinnamon water 

(or five whole cloves) 

Pare, core, and quarter the apples. Put them in a saucepan with just 
enough water to keep them from burning. Add flavorings. Cook gently until 
the apples are soft, stirring frequently. Add sugar, and beat well. 

* Stewed Apples 

Pare, core, and cut into quarters. Cook gently with barely enough water 
to keep apples from sticking to the saucepan. When tender, sweeten to taste. 
Peaches also may be cooked in this way. 

Cranberry Sauce 

2 c. cranberries 1 c. sugar 

1 c. water 

Pick over and wash the cranberries. Put them into a saucepan, add 
water, cover, and cook until the skin bursts. Strain through a sieve^ add 
sugar, and cook gently for five minutes. 



88 THE iSCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Cranberry Jam 

Add one-half cup of water to the pulp. Eub through a sieve. Add half 
as much sugar as you have pulp, and bring to the boiling point. 

* Dried Fruits 

Select clean fruits, rather wrinkled than plump. If they are very plump 
they may have been soaked to make them heavier. 

Dried fruits have had the water removed and should be soaked before 
being cooked. Inspect them very carefully for insects. Add warm water 
and let them stand in it for^fifteen to twenty minutes. Then wash very clean, 
rubbing tiiem well between the hands. Barely cover with cold water and 
soak over night. Cook very gently in a little water from two to six hours. 
Add sugar if needed, when tender. Serve hot or cold. 

Prunes do not need sugar if cooked in very little water. Apples should 
be boiled, as the texture is improved thereby. They do not require long 
cooking. 

Dried fruits may be steamed after soaking. 

QUESTIONS AND PKOBLEMS 

What is the composition of the orange.^ Banana? Apple? Dried fig? 
Prune? What is the chief food element in fruit? Compare different fruits 
for food value. Why are fruits so valuable to the body? Why do fruits 
stimulate bowel activity?' Why are green fruits indigestible? Which fruits 
contain much tough fiber? Why shun over-ripe fruits? Why is the banana 
indigestible? Why are fruits that have been exposed to flies and dust dan- 
gerous? Why should all fruits be well washed and dried befoi-e using? Why 
does not thorough washing make berries that have been exposed to flies safe 
to use? Why scald grapes? Why use silver knives and spoons and enameled 
ware kettles for fruit? What fruits are to be had in your market? What 
varieties of apples? Which are home grown? What fruits could you grow 
in your garden? What is the cheapest fruit in your market? How much 
would it cost to provide fruit for youv family every day? Which would be 
the least expensive for dessert, a pudding, a pie, or fresh fruit? Which 
would be most beneficial? Make a list of fruits now in season that you 
could afford to serve for your family. 



CHAPTER V 



VEGETABLES 



C0MP081TI0N OF VEGETABLES 

CARBO- C A LOUIES 

WATER PROTEIN FAT HYDRATE FIBER ASH PER 1.15. 

Asparagus, fresh 94. 1.8 .2 3.3 .8 .7 105 

Beans, string 89.2 2.3 .3 7.4 1.9 .8 195 

Beans, dried 7.1 20. 1.5 65. ... 4. 1625 

Beets 87.5 1.6 .1 9.7 .9 1.1 215 

Cabbage 91.5 1.0 .3 5.6 1.1 1. 145 

Celery 94.5 1.1 .1 3.3 1. ... 85 

Corn 75.4 3.1 1.1 19.7 .5 .7 470 

Cucumbers 95.4 .8 .2 3.1 .7 .5 80 

Turnip greens 86.7 4.2 .(5 6.3 ... 2.2 220 

Lettuce 94.7 1.2 .3 2.9 .7 .9 90 

Peas, green 74.6 7. .5 16.9 1.7 1. 465 

Potatoes, white 78.3 2.2 .1 18.4 .4 1. 385 

Potatoes, sweet 69. 1.8 .7 27.4 1.3 1.1 570 

Tomatoes 94.3 .9 .4 3.9 .6 .5 105 

The name vegetable means anything that grows in the earth, 
but is now commonly applied to those plants which are used for 
food. Vegetables may be classified as flowers, seeds, roots, and 
tubers, according to the part that is eaten. 

With the exception of the cereals, potatoes, and beans, vege- 
tables have but little actual food value, but, like fruits, they are 
important in the diet on account of their salts and acids and for 
the cellulose which furnishes the bulk needed to keep the diges- 
tive machinery working. A diet low in green vegetables or fresh 
fruits is apt to cause constipation. 

All vegetables are largely composed of water ; next to water, 
carbohydrates are most abundant ; traces of protein and fats are 
also found in them. 

89 



9Q THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Mention some vegetables that contain fats (see Table). One that 
contains protein. One that contains starch. One that contains sugar. Test 
vegetables for these elements. (See Experiments 1-X, pages 43-45. Classify 
vegetables named in recipes of this chapter (including dried beans and 
potatoes) as green and starchy, according to composition (see Table). 

By a simple experiment let us see what we mean by 
cellulose. 

Experiment I. Grate a turnip. Squeeze the pulp into a bit of cheese- 
cloth or a fine sieve and then inspect it carefully. The woody fiber remaining 
is cellulose. It must be softened by heat and moisture before it can be 
used, and even then the body will get little actual nutriment from it. The 
more cellulose in a vegetable the more need there is of cooking it. 

Experiment II. Prepare a potato in the same way as you prepared the 
turnip. Inspect the pulp and test it for starch. (See Experiment I, page 
43.) The starch is so closely connected with the fiber that it cannot be 
separated except by cooking. 

Experiment III. Grate a carrot. Squeeze out the juice, put it into a 
small saucepan, and boil it down. Taste it. What do carrots contain? 
What other root vegetables contain this substance? 

Experiment IV. Examine thin slices of vegetables under a microscope, 
noticing the fiber. 

Experiment V. Pare a potato and weigh it. Cut it in thin slices and 
put them into a warm, dry place (the warming oven or the back of the 
range will do) where they will dry but not cook. When thoroughly dry 
(several days may be needed) weigh them. What per cent has been lost? 
What substance was lost? Dry lettuce in this way, noting per cent of water. 

Retaining the Minerals. The value to the body of the 
mineral salts derived from vegetables has only lately begun to 
attract the attention of physiologists. It has been proved beyond 
a doubt that perfect nourishment is possible only when all the 
required elements are supplied. Green vegetables are one of the 
chief sources of potash, iron, and other needed minerals. If 
much water is used in their cooking, not only is flavor lost but 
also these valuable salts. When cooked without paring, vege- 
tables retain most of these salts, as do those whose juice is used 
as a sauce or those cooked in such a way that all the water used 
is evaporated. Where possible, cook vegetables by ^teaming or 
in a very small quantity of water. 



VEGETABLES 9I 

Softening the Cellulose. As was seen from Experiment I, 
vegetables contain a tough woody fiber that requires softening 
by cooking. Some of this fiber is so tough that it must be removed 
either before or after cooking; for example, tlie husks of corn, 
the skin of beets, carrots, tomatoes, and the shell of the pumpkin. 
Some vegetables are cut into small pieces so that they may be 
softened. (Mention one.) The cellulose in young vegetables is 
more tender than in old ones ; therefore they are more easily 
cooked. One of the important points in cooking vegetables is to 
soften the woody fiber. Vinegar is served with turnips and 
beets, and helps to soften the woody fiber. 

Preserving the Flavor. Another important point in the 
cooking of vegetables is to preserve the flavor. It was found that 
the carrot juice was sweet because of the sugar. If the carrots 
were cooked in a large quantity of water, the juice would be in 
the water instead of in the carrots. Suggest a plan for cooking 
them so that the juice will remain. 

As all vegetable flavors are easily dissipated by great heat, 
vegetables should not be boiled too rapidly. Unless very highly 
flavored, they should be cooked in the least water possible and 
drained, if needed, as soon as tender. The kind of water in 
which vegetables are cooked has much to do with their softness 
and flavor. Soft water, such as cistern water, should have a tea- 
spoonful of salt added to each gallon when used for cooking 
fresh vegetables. In the case of dried peas or beans, the salt 
should be added after they are cooked. 

Hard water may be softened by adding half a teaspoonful 
of soda to each gallon of water. This is needed for both fresh 
and dried peas and beans. Other green vegetables do not need 
soda, as their color and flavor are best preserved by slightly hard 
water. 

Never cook vegetables in an iron vessel. Perfectly smooth 
enameled ware is best. Use freshly boiled water. 

Experiment VI. Cook green vegetables, covered and uncovered; aod 
note difference in color and flavor. 



92 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Seasoning and Serving. Do not serve more than one semi- 
liquid vegetable at one time. For instance, do not serve stewed 
tomatoes and stewed corn at the same meal ; if it is desired to 
have the corn stewed, serve the tomatoes sliced, or have the 
corn cooked in a pudding or boiled on the cob if the tomatoes 
are stewed. 

Any vegetable which is not served in the water in which it 
is cooked, must he very thoroughly drained. Turn the vegetable 
into a colander or sieve, let it stand for a few moments, and then 
turn into the saucepan in which it was cooked and shake over 
the fire until quite dry. Greens, such as spinach or mustard, 
should always he pressed to remove the water, before they are 
brought to the table. 

After draining, season so delicately that the flavor of the 
vegetable is not hidden; for instance, black pepper in green 
peas hides the flavor of the peas. For most vegetables, melted 
butter or a simple sauce is used. Allow two tablespoonfuls of 
melted butter or one cup of thick white sauce (see page 118) 
to each pint of vegetables. Turnips and beans may be cooked 
with a little salt pork. Corn, tomatoes, and green peas require 
a little sugar. Beets and greens are improved by a little lemon 
juice or vinegar. Serve cooked vegetables in warm dishes. All 
vegetables should be dry enough to be served on the plate and 
eaten with a fork. 

Selection and Care. Vegetables are cheapest and best when 
in season, that is, when grown near the marketing place. Wilted 
vegetables are tough and lack flavor. 

Root vegetables should be smooth and tender and of medium 
size, the tops being fresh and green. All green vegetables should 
be fresh and crisp and not too coarse. Vegetables should be 
kept in a clean, cool, dry place. 

Preparation for Cooking. Examine all vegetables carefully 
to see that there are no insects on them. Wash thoroughly as 
they may be sandy or may have poisons on them which have 
been used to destroy insects. Then pare and cut them in pieces 
if required. 



VEGETABLES 93 

CANNED A^EGETABLES 

Select canned vegetables very carefully. Buy reliable brands 
in cans which have the name of the packer on the can. Read 
the label carefully and see that colorings and preservatives are 
not used. Examine the cans; if the^^ bulge, the contents are 
spoiled and gas has formed. Old canned goods are not safe, as 
the tin may have been corroded by tlie acid of the contents. If 
many canned goods are used, buy them by the case at the season 
when the freshly packed article has come into market (usually 
in the autumn), and store in a cool place. Fresh green vegeta- 
bles are better and cheaper than canned ones at most seasons. 
Compare prices of home canned vegetables with prices of the 
factory product. 

Cooking Canned Vegetables. As they have been cooked, 
canned vegetables need only to be reheated and seasoned. As 
soon as the can is opened turn the contents into a bowl and air 
for an hour. If the commercial canned goods are used, drain 
off the liquid from asparagus, peas, and like vegetables, and wash 
them in a colander. 

WHITE POTATOES 

White, or Irish potatoes as they are called, are the enlarged 
underground stem of a plant which grows in many parts of our 
country. 

Note composition of potato. To what class of food does it 
belong? A little mineral is found in potatoes, lying just under 
the skin. If they are pared too deeply, this mineral is lost. The 
juice contains a trace of protein. 

Eeview Experiment I, page 43. 

Choosing Potatoes. Potatoes are of different colors and 
shapes. They should be without cuts or bruises or soft spots, 
and should be smooth and firm to the touch. If sprouted, they 
are not fit for food. For most uses the medium-sized potato is 
the best as the very small ones have too much skin and are some- 
times not well matured or ripened. 



94 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Keeping* Potatoes. Keep potatoes in a cool, dry, dark 
place. 

Paring Potatoes. Put potatoes into a pan of water and 
scrub well with a brush. If they are to be pared use a sharp vege- 
table knife and take off a very thin layer of the skin. Why should 
the paring be thin ? Remove the eyes with the point of the knife. 
The potato should be smooth and white when it is pared. Put 
the pared potatoes into cold water if they are not to be cooked 
immediately. Why ? If they are to be boiled without paring take 
off a thin layer of skin around the center. Old potatoes are im- 
proved if they are soaked in cold water for an hour or two before 
cooking. 

Weigh the parings and other rejected parts. Then weigh the pared 
potatoes. What per cent is wasted? What precautions in handling potatoes 
will lessen the waste? What is the price per pound of potatoes? 

Cooking Potatoes. As the principal food element in po- 
tatoes is starch they must be thoroughly cooked. Cook potatoes 
in a hot oven or in boiling water. If cooked too slowly they will 
be heavy and flat. Select potatoes of uniform size when they 
are to be served whole. When a potato is done it should be soft. 
Test by piercing with a fork or a tootlipick. Serve on a warm 
dish as sooii as cooked, as cold potatoes are heavy and indi- 
gestible. 

Potatoes Boiled Without Paring 

Prepare the potatoes according to directions. Place in a large saucepan 
and cover with boiling water. Boil briskly at first, then less briskly, and 
cook until soft. How are they tested? If boiled too rapidly the potatoes 
will become broken and soggy. 

* Potatoes Pared and Boiled (Class Recipe 1 Potato) 

Wash and pare the potatoes according to directions. Cook them whole 
if time permits. If not, cut them into halves or small cubes. Put them into 
a smooth enameled or aluminum saucepan, cover with boiling water, and 
boil briskly for the first ten minutes. Then lower the heat until the water 
just bubbles gently. When tender drain well. Put the potatoes back into 
the saucepan, dust with salt, and shake over the fire until they are perfectly 



VEGETABLES 95 

dry and white. In doing this take care that they do not burn. Turn them 
into a dish and pour white sauce over them, or sprinkle with finely chopped 
parsley and pour a little melted butter over them. Serve quickl}' with roast, 
steak, or fish. 

To Shred Parsley. Wash the parsley through several waters and dry it 
in a soft towel. Gather the leaves in a bunch and cut them fine with a 
vegetable knife on a plate or board. Do not chop parsley. 

* Mashed Potatoes (Class Recipe Vi; 1 Medium-Sized Potato) 

1 tbsp. butter i^ tsp. white pepper salt to taste 

2 c. mashed potato 3 tbsp. hot milk 

Mash boiled potatoes through a ricer into a hot bowl. Add the butter 
melted in the hot milk, the pepper, and one-fourth to one-half teaspoonful of 
salt. Beat with a fork till white and creamy. Heap in a hot dish and serve 
quickly. 

Potatoes Mashed and Browned. Put hot mashed potato into a pudding 
dish, with the potato slightly raised in the center. Brown in a quick oven 
and serve in the dish in which it was cooked. The top may be pricked with 
a fork before browning. Brush with egg yolk diluted with one tablespoon- 
ful of water if a rich golden color is desired. 

Baked Potatoes 

Potatoes are most easily digested when baked. Use large or medium- 
sized potatoes. Lay them on the grate of a hot oven, in a shallow baking 
pan, or on a patent roaster. Bake until soft, about forty minutes. When 
the potatoes are done press gently in a cloth, then make a deep gash across 
each with a knife so that the steam may find its way out. Put a bit of butter 
in each potato and serve on small plates. Potatoes may be pared before 
baking, if preferred. 

* Boiled New Potatoes 

1 qt. new potatoes 1 c. rich milk or cream 

1 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. butter 

salt to taste 

Wash the potatoes well, put them into a bowl of water, and scrape off 
the skin with a vegetable knife. Wash clean, and drop into cold water 
until ready to cook. New potatoes are not so easy to digest as the fully 
ripened ones, owing to their density, and should not be eaten by invalids. 
They have in them a bitter, poisonous substance, called solanin, found 
near the skin. Much of this can be removed by putting the potatoes in 



96 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

cold water, and boiling them for five minutes. (Starches are usually put 
into l)oiling water to secure a greater expansion of the starch grains, but 
this would prevent the escape of the solanin.) Then drain the potatoes and 
cook in boiling water until tender. Just before the potatoes are done, add 
one teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water in the saucepan. If the 
water is very soft, add salt at first. (See Hard and Soft Water, page 72.) 
When the potatoes are done, drain. Eub the flour with enough of the cold 
milk to make a paste. Add the rest of the milk, and pour it all into the 
kettle. Bring to the boiling point, stirring all the time. Add butter and 
salt, and serve. 

Fried Potatoes (See Page 228) 
SWEET POTATOES 

Except for a little sugar, sweet potatoes are very much like 
white potatoes in composition, but are not as easy to digest. 
They are much used in warm climates in place of white potatoes. 
They keep well when canned. Select smooth-skinned, medium- 
sized potatoes with yellow flesh. 

* Baked Sweet Potatoes 

Proceed as for white potatoes. As they buni easily on account of the 
sugar in them, the oven must not be too hot. 

*REHEATED POTATOES 

Potatoes should not be eaten cold, as they are then very difficult to digest. 
If any baked potatoes are left from a meal, cut them in half while still 
warm, take out the pulp, and mash and season. Put the pulp back into the 
half shells and when ready to serve heat very hot in a moderate oven. 

Boiled potatoes may be mashed and seasoned while warm, then reheated 
on top of a range or browned in an oven. Boiled white potatoes may also 
be used in cakes with meat or fish (See Codfish Balls, page 192), or used 
as a border tor meat dishes, in a cottage pie, or in hash (See Left-over 
Meats, page 175). 

Scalloped Potatoes 

Use one-half as much white sauce as you have white potatoes. Put the 
cold potatoes, cut in cubes, into a shallow baking dish that has been 
greased. Sprinkle lightly with salt and pour over them the white sauce. 
Cover with fine bread or cracker crumbs, and cook for fifteen minutes in 
a moderately hot oven. The crumbs must be a delicate brown. Serve in the 
dish in which they were cooked. 



I 



VEGETABLES 97 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What is the composition of the potato? Where is the mineral sub- 
stance in potatoes? What use are potatoes to the body? Why do they 
need thorough cooking? Describe the manner of cooking potatoes. Why 
must potatoes be served hot? What elements are lost in soaking them? 
What foods should be served with them to make a balanced ration? How 
would you reheat potatoes? Compare the cost of a pound of potatoes and a 
pound of rice? How do these two vegetables compare in food value? 
Which will go farther in serving? Tell how to keep potatoes. How would 
you utilize cold potatoes? Why should new potatoes be put to cook in 
cold water? What difference is there between white and sweet potatoes? 
How does this difference affect the temperature for baking? 

GREEN VEGETABLES 
Asparagus 

Select plump white stalks, as the small green tips are apt to be bitter. 
See that the stalks have been freshly cut. 

Wash asparagus in clean, cold water and cut off the tips as far down 
as they are brittle. Reserve the tough part for soup. Tie the tips in 
bunches for each serving and then tie all together. Place the bunches in a 
deep saucepan, and pour in enough boiling water to cover all but the tips. 
Put on the lid and boil till tender — about forty-five minutes. Shortly before 
cooking is finished add salt, allowing a teaspoonful to a quart of water. 
Then add enough boiling water to cover completely and cook for ten minutes. 
Drain and arrange each bunch on an oblong slice of toast that has been 
slightly moistened with the water in which the asparagus was cooked. Cover 
with melted butter or Hollandaise Sauce and serve with roast fowl or broiled 
meats, or as a separate course. 

* Boiled Beets 

1 bunch beets 1 tsp. sugar 
1/4 tsp. salt 1 tsp. vinegar 

2 tbsp. melted butter 

Wash clean but do not remove roots or all of stem. Barely cover with 
boiling water and cook until tender — from one to three hours. The cellulose 
in old beets is so like wood that it cannot be softened. Test with a tooth- 
pick. Drain. Plunge the beets into cold water, remove at once, slip off 
the skins and cut into slices, quarters, or eighths. Beat the melted butter, 
sugar, salt, and vinegar together, and when thoroughly mixed, pour over 
the beets. They may also be seasoned with salt and butter or with vinegar 
to which has been added a little salt and sugar. 



98 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

* Carrots 

Carrots should be eaten when young. Wash, scrape off the skin, and cook 
in barely enough boiling salted water to cover them. Add one teaspoonful 
of butter to the water and boil the water down as low as possible. An hour 
and a quarter will be neeiled for cooking carrots. When tender, drain. Sea- 
son with melted butter or white sauce. 

Carrots may be served with peas. Cut into strips after scraping and boil 
for an hour, letting all the water evaporate. Then arrange in the center of 
the dish and pour the peas around tem. Why is little water used in cooking 
carrots? 

*Boiled or Steamed Squash 

Summer squashes should be thin skinned and tender. As they have little 
woody fiber, they can be eaten by those who have a very delicate digestion, 
and may be cooked without paring. Cut into thick slices, barely cover with 
boiling water, and cook until tender. Then dry out the Avater, or steam, as 
directed below. Shake over the fire, and season with butter and salt. 
Squashes burn easily on account of the sugar in them. 

Winter squashes and pumpkins require more time for cooking than 
summer squashes, as the woody fiber is tougher. 

Boiled or Steamed Pumpkin 

Eemove the seeds, cut into strips, and pare. Boil as summer squash. 
Cook in a steamer or put a wire rack in the bottom of a saucej)nn or i)ot and 
pour in a small quantity of hot water. Place the pumpkin on the rack and 
cover. Cook until tender (several hours will be needed). Eemove from the 
pot and mash thoroughly. It may be used immediately for pies or as a vege- 
table, or a part of it may be kept in a very cold place till next day. For use 
as a vegetable, put it into a small pan and bake for one hour or until per- 
fectly dry. Watch carefully to prevent burning. After baking for half an 
hour sprinkle lightly with sugar and stir well. When ready to serve add two 
tablespoonfuls of butter. 

* String Beans (Class Recipe) 

1 pt. beans 1 tsp. flour 

rait to taste a pinch of soda (the size of a pea) 

1 tsp. of butter, or 1 slice of salt pork boiling water to cover 

i/i c. cream if no pork is used 

String the beanc, breaking them into half-inch lengths, and wash. Add 
soda unless the water is very soft. Cover with boiling water, and add the 
butter or salt pork. Cook gently until tender. Add ^alt fifteen minutes 



VEGETABLES 99 

before the beans are done. Drain and add the cream rubbed to a paste with 
the flour. Bring to the boiling point. Taste to see if properly salted. Tf 
pork is used drain and serve. 

Peas and beans contain a vegetable protein, called legumin, which is 
insoluble (cannot be dissolved) in hard water. Soda is added to correct this. 
The skin of beans is tough but a little :&at put in at the beginning softens it. 

* Green Peas (Class Recipe i/o) 

1 pt. peas ^ tbsp. sugar 

1 tsp. flour l^ tsp. salt. 

1 tsp. butter 1/2 c. cream 

Select fresh, well-filled green pods, as yellow peas are old or from vines 
that are dying. Shell and wash in cold water. Put in a very cool place for an 
liour unless the peas are freshly picked. Cook as directed for string beans, 
salt to taste fifteen minutes before they are done; when tender add the 
sugar, cream, and flour rubbed together, bring to the boiling point and add 
salt if needed. Serve in croustades. (See page 219.) Measure peas before 
and after shelling. How many quarts of green peas equal 1 pint shelled^ 

* Cabbage with White Sauce 

Select a firm, white head of cabbage (dark spots are a sign of age), 
heavy in proportion to its size. Take off the outside leaves and cut the cab- 
bage into eighths, removing as much of the central stalk as possible. Soak in 
cold water for an hour. Fill a large saucepan two-thirds full of boiling 
water. Cabbage, being of strong flavor, may be cooked in more water than 
a vegetable of delicate flavor. Allow one teaspoonf ul of salt to each quart 
of water. When the water is boiling hard put in the cabbage, bring to the 
boiling point, then keep hot for twenty minutes, or until tender, but do not 
allow it to boil. Drain, arrange on a platter, and pour a thick white sauce 
over it, or serve with melted butter. Another method is to boil one-fourth 
pound of salt pork in the water for fifteen minutes before putting in the 
cabbage and continue cooking it with the cabbage. When cooked, drain 
and serve. 

Cauliflower with HoUandaise Sauce 

Select a firm, white head with no black spots and remove the o«ter 
leaves and as much stem as possible. Wash very carefully and soak in cold 
water, head down, for an hour. Then tie in cheesecloth and cook, stem 
down, in boiling salted water to cover (1 tsp. salt to 1 qt. water) for 
twenty minutes, or longer if the head is very large. Test for tenderness 



100 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

with a straw. When tender, drain, arrange in a shallow vegetable dish, 
head np, and pour over it Hollandaise Sauce, melted butter, or White Sauce. 
(For Hollandaise Sauce, see page 192.) Cauliflower may be broken into 
pieces before cooking. 

* Spinach (Class Recipe) 

% pk. spinach 1 tsp. salt 

1 c. water 2 hard cooked eggs 

2 tbsp. melted butter 

Select young, crisp greens; leaves that have been eaten by insects are 
inferior. Pick them over, inspecting carefully for insects. Wash through 
several waters and shake well to take off the sand. Cut off the stems. Put 
spinach into a saucepan and pour the boiling water over it. Cook gently, 
lifting now and then to prevent sticking. Cook from thirty to sixty minutes, 
according to age of vegetable. Drain when tender. Reheat and sprinkle 
with salt. Add the butter. Mix well. Press in a hot bowl for a few 
minutes and then turn on to a hot platter. Garnish with the eggs cut in 
slices, and serve with broiled or roast meat. 

Mustard or Turnip Greens 

1 pk. greens 2 tsp. salt 

1^ lb. salt pork 2 qts. water 

Select and prepare mustard greens as directed for spinach. Put the pork 
into the boiling water, add the greens and let boil gently from two to four 
hours, according to the toughness of the greens. Drain, chop, and reheat. 
Serve hot. Pass vinegar with greens. If desired omit the pork, and, after 
reheating, season with butter. Serve with pork or beef. 

♦Boiled Green Com 

Since corn, like peas, does not keep well on account of its sugar, it 
must be freshly gathered. It should, be cooked in very little water or its 
sweetness will be lost. 

Remove part of the husk, turn back the remainder and pick off the 
silks. If insects have been on the tip of the ear, trim well. Pull the husks 
over the end and tie with a piece of husk. Barely cover with boiling water, 
bring to the boiling point, and cook for ten minutes at a temperature just 
below the boiling point. Then drain, remove the husks, and serve hot The 
husks may be removed before cooking. 



VEGETABLES 101 

* Stewed Tomatoes (Class Eecipe) 

1 pt. tomatoes 2 tbsp. butter 

1 tbsp. sugar ■ salt to taste 

Select firm, well ripened tomatoes. Inspect the stem end to see that 
there is no hole showing the presence of insects. Plunge the tomatoes into 
boiling water for a moment, then into cold. Peel and chop, rejecting the 
core. Cook gently in an enameled saucepan. (Never cook tomatoes in tin 
or iron.) When the pulp is tender, add the flour rubbed to a paste in a 
little cooled tomato. Stir until it boils. Add salt and sugar. When just 
ready to serve add butter and pour it over bits of toast arranged in a bowl. 
Toast may be omitted and tomato served to accompany steamed rice. 

Boiled Okra 

Okra must be young, tender, and unwilted. Wash carefully. Cut off the 
stems just even with the pod. Cook gently in boiling water until tender. 
Drain in a colander. Pour a little boiling water over it, drain well, and 
turn into a warm dish. Sprinkle with salt, pour melted butter over it, and 
serve. 

* Stuffed Egg Plant 

Select an egg plant that is heavy in proportion to its size. (If too old, 
it is bitter.) Wipe clean and bake in a moderately hot oven until it is 
tender Cut in half, scoop out the pulp, and chop fine, rejecting seed or 
hard parts. Then add an equal quantity of bread crumbs, a tablespoonful 
of butter, and salt to taste. Eefill the shells and bake until nicely browned, 
or cook the pulp and crumbs in a baking dish until brown. 

* Boiled Onions, Cream Sauce 

Paring Onioits. If only one onion is needed pare on paper. Use a fork 
to hold the onion and a sharp pointed knife to pull off the skin. Keep 
onion as far from the eyes as possible. Dip in cold water to wash. When 
a number of onions are to be pared, put them in a large bowl, cover with 
cold water, and pare, using a knife and fork. Clean immediately, with a 
cleansing powder, all utensils in which onions have been used. 

Pare the onions, and wash. Barely cover with boiling water. Add salt, 
allowing one tablespoonful to each quart of water. Cook gently, uncovered, 
until tender. (About three-quarters of an hour.) When done they should 
be quite tender when pierced with a toothpick. Drain. Arrange in a serv- 
ing dish and pour a white sauce over them. 



102 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

DRIED PEAS AND BEANS 

Dried peas and beans are rich in protein. In addition to pro- 
tein, beans contain a large proportion of carbohydrates and some 
sulphur. As they lack fat, they are usually cooked with pork. 

Digestibility of Beans. The food value of beans is depend- 
ent on the digestive power of the person using them. One 
engaged in hard physical labor in the open air may be able to 
make beans his chief source of protein, but the indoor worker 
should use them sparingly, if at all, as they are very difficult to 
digest. 

Selecting Beans. In buying beans, see that they are clean 
— that is, free from weevils, tiny stones, and earth. They may 
be bought in quantity in the fall, but in the spring and summer 
they should be bought in small quantities only, as the older the 
beans, the tougher the fiber, and the more difficult they are to 
cook. Keep peas and beans in glass jars. 

Cooking Beans. Look over the beans carefully, rejecting 
all imperfect ones. Wash clean and soak in soft water from 
eight to twenty-four hours. The skin of dried peas and beans is 
tough and unless soaked it is almost impossible to soften it by 
cooking. Cook beans in soft water if possible. As legumin, the 
protein element of beans, is rendered insoluble by hard water, 
they cannot be cooked in it unless soda is added. Even in soft 
water a little soda is useful as it helps to soften the legumin ; 
add from one-fourtli to one teaspoonful of soda to each quart of 
dried beans, depending on the kind of water. Rain water or 
that from artificial ice softens beans quickly. Long, gentle 
cooking seems to develop the flavor of beans and removes the 
granular texture. The fireless cooker is well adapted to the 
cooking of these dried vegetables. 

-Boston Baked Beans 

5 c. navy beans % lb. salt pork 

% tsp. bieaibonato of soda 8 tbsp. sugarhouse molasses 

1 tsp. salt a (lash of cayenne pepper 

(The different operations in preparing: the beans may be done by different 
classes; the baking may be done in earthenware cups.) 



VEGETABLES 103 

Prepare the beans as directed and bring gradually to the boiling point. 
Then put in the pork with the rind scored in one-fourth inch strips. Let 
simmer very gently until the skin cracks. Kemove the pork and drain the 
beans. Turn into a bean pot or earthen bowl and sink the pork in the center. 
Sprinkle lightly with pepper and pour on the molasses. Add one teaspoonful 
of salt to two cups of water in which the beans were cooked, and pour over 
the beans. Then cover closely and bake very slowly for five or six hours. 
If desired, one pint of hot tomato sauce may be poured over the beans half 
an hour before serving. 

This gives a large quantity, but as beans keep well if kept very cold, it 
is well to prepare a large amount at one time. In hot weather cook a 
smaller quantity. 

Baked Beans Reheated 

Put the beans into a granite or enameled pan. Add a few tablespoon - 
fuls of boiling water. Cover closely and keep in the oven until very hot. 
Dip the edges of well browned toast into boiling water slightly salted. But- 
ter each slice, and arrange on a large platter. Heap the beans on the toast, 
and serve with broiled bacon. 



VEGETABLE CEEAM SOUPS 

Inferior vegetables such as large peas or coarse pieces of 
celery may be used for souj^s. These soups may be made with 
milk or stock for a foundation, and are thickened with flour or 
cornstarch. A rather thin soup is known as a cream soup, while 
a thick one is called a puree ; for example, Cream of Celery, or 
Puree of Peas. The soup must be smooth and free of lumps, 
with no tendency to settle — that is, to be thin on top and thick 
at the bottom. 

(Review Experiments IV, V, VII, page 117, and White Sauce, page 118.) 

* Cream of Pea Soup (Class Recipe) 

2 c. large peas (caniied or frosh) 1 tsp. sugar 

2 tbsp. fiour 1 tsp. salt 

Vs tsp. white pepx)er 1 slice onion 

2 tbsp. butter 4 c. milk 

2 e. cold water 



104 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Cook fresh peas until tender, adding the sugar twenty minutes before 
they are done. When tender, rub through a sieve. Measure the water in 
which they were cooked and add enough more to make the two cups. Kub 
the flour to a paste with some of the same liquid. Put the pulp and the 
liquid into a saucepan, stir until it thickens, and bring to the boiling point. 
Have the milk scalded with the onion in a double boiler, and add to the pea 
mixture. Heat it very hot, then return to the double boiler, adding butter 
and seasonings. Serve in hot ciips, with croutons. 

For a puree, use half the quantity of milk. If canned peas are used, 
drain and air, then cook with the cold water and sugar for twenty minutes, 
and finish as directed. Compare proportions of milk and flour in cream 
soups and in white sauces. 

VEGETABLE SALADS 

The term salad refers in particular to uncooked vegetables 
served with a dressing which usually contains fat combined with 
other ingredients. They are very valuable in the diet, as they 
supply vegetable salts and give the needed bulk. Being served 
raw, salad vegetables may be carriers of disease unless they are 
grown in clean places and have been protected from flies and 
dirt. They may carry disease germs or the eggs of parasites. 

Plants for salad must be clean, tender, and crisp, never 
wilted. Keep in the ice-box, wrapped in a damp cloth. As 
salads must never be watery, add the dressing just before serving. 

Celery. Celery is usually eaten raw and should be washed 
very carefully. When ready to serve, scrape the stalks with a 
knife. When celery is chopped for salad, moisten immediately 
with a few drops of lemon juice to keep it white. 

* Lettuce Salad 

If a very firm head of lettuce is used, it may be cut into quarters or 
halves for washing. If the head is not firm, separate the leaves, rejecting 
all imperfect ones, and inspect carefully for insects. Wash in an abundance 
of water, shaking the leaves up and down to remove sand. Wrap in a 
cheesecloth wrung out of cold water, and lay on ice until desired. Then 
press gently between soft, clean towels. Do not crush the lettuce. Arrange 
in a salad bowl and cover with the simple dressing given below, or arrange 
on individual salad plates and serve the dressing separately. This salad may 
be served with French Dressing. (Sec page 233.) 



VEGETABLES 105 

A Simple Salad Dressing 

1^ tsp. salt 6 tbsp. melted butter 

1 egg yolk 1 tbsp. lemon juice or vinegar 

a pinch of cayenne or paprika 

Beat the egg well, adding gradually a part of the butter. Then add salt 
and pepper, lemon juice, and the remainder of the butter. Serve immedi- 
ately. 

*Sliced Tomatoes 

Scald the tomatoes as directed in Stewed Tomatoes, or wipe with a 
damp cloth, scrape the skin with a dull knife till loosened, then peel and 
slice. Arrange on lettuce leaves and cover with Cooked Salad Dressing (See 
below), or Mayonnaise (Sec page 233). 



* Waldorf Salad (Class Recipe) 

1 apple 1 tbsp. chopped celery 

1 tbsp. Mayonnaise lemon juice 

Scoop out the pulp of the apple with a spoon. Chop fine. Moisten 
slightly with lemon juice, and mix it with the celery. Wrap in a damp 
cloth and put in the refrigerator. Drop shell of apple in cold water. When 
ready to serve mix Mayonnaise, celery, and apple. Fill the apple cup with 
mixture, and place on a dainty mat on a small plate. 

*Cole Slaw (Class Recipe Vi) 

1 c. cooked salad dressing 14 small head of cabbage 

Remove outer leaves from a head of cabbage; let cabbage stand in cold 
water for thirty minutes. Dry on a cloth and then remove the stalk. Shred 
the cabbage very fine and mix the dressing with it. Serve very cold. 

* Cooked Salad Dressing 

1 tsp. salt 1 tsp. mustard 
14 tsp. cayenne 1 tsp. sugar 

2 tbsp. butter 1 e. water 

2 egg yolks 1 tbsp. vinegar 

Mix dry ingredients in a bowl. Stir in slightly beaten egg yolks and 
melted butter. Add the boiling water. Put into a double boiler and heat, 



106 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

stirring all the time. When it begins to coat the spoon, add very gradually 
the vinegar mixed with two tablespoonfuls of hot water, beating all the 
time. Strain and cool. 

Potato Salad 

Potato salad differs from the other salads in that it is a very starchy 
food. 

Boil four potatoes. Peel and cut them, while hot, into a French Dressing 
to which finely chopped onion has been added — one small onion to four 
potatoes being a liberal allowance. Onion juice may be used instead of 
chopped onion. Taste to see if enough salt has been used. Keep in a cold 
place until serving time, then garnish with parsley and hard cooked eggs. 
The quantity of dressing used depends on individual taste. 



QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

What are vegetables? Of what value are they in the diet? How are the 
minerals best retained? What is cellulose? How is it affected by cook- 
ing? Why are most vegetables cooked in very little water? Mention two 
vegetables that contain sugar. What effect has too great a heat or long 
continued cooking on vegetables? What kind of water is best for cooking 
vegetables? How may cistern water be made slightly hard? How may hard 
water be softened? What kind of utensils would you select for vegetables? 
Tell how to serve vegetables. Why are simple seasonings best for vege- 
tables? Tell how to select the vegetables used in your lesson. Tell what 
you would buy for a given sum for your family in your market. Give direc- 
tions for selecting each vegetable purchased. What part of the money 
spent for food in your family is expended for vegetables? Compare this 
with the amount spent for meats, fruits, and starchy foods. How does the 
actual food value compare in each case? Considering the value of vegetable 
acids and salts, is the expense of vegetables justified? Which is better for 
a person who is too liberally fed, potatoes or lettuce? For the underfed? 
What is meant when you speak of vegetables which are in season? 

What vegetables are utilized for soups? When milk is used as a base 
for the soup, what caution should be used in selecting the remainder of the 
menu? Describe tlie process of making a cream soup. What is meant by a 
puree? Which is of higher food value, cream of pea or tomato soup? 

Why is it so necessary to select salad plants grown in a clean place and 
protected from flies and dust? How could you secure such jylants? Which 
salad plants grow well in your locality? How should vegetables be kept for 
salads f 



VEGETABLES 



107 



What kinds of dried peas and beans are used in your locality? Bring 
samples to the class. Where are they grown? How are they kept? 

What is the food value of beans? In what food element are they lack- 
ing? Compare their composition with that of meat. Of milk. Compare the 
cost of beans for a meal with that of stew, and of broiled steak. Compare 
the time of cooking. Eead the recipe for baked beans. How much pork is 
used? HoAV much does it cost per pound? 

What food or foods would you serve with beans to make a palatable and 
well balanced meal? 

What can you say of the digestibility of beans? Could beans be sub- 
stituted for part of the meat used in your family? 

Why should beans be soaked before cooking? Why is soda added? How 
much soda is used to a quart of water? Why is soft water best for cooking 
beans? Why is fat added early in the cooking process? How long does it 
take to cook beans tender in the water you use? 



Supplementary Eecipes 



Potatoes Cooked with 
Koast Beef (p. 380) 
Puffed Potatoes (p. 380) 
Boiled Sweet Potatoes (p. 380) 
*Sweet Potato Cakes (p. 380) 
Boiled Turnips (p. 380) 
*Baked Squash (p. 381) 
Kershaw (p. 381) 
*Lima Beans (p. 381) 
Black-eyed Peas (p. 381) 
*Stewed Corn (p. 382) 
Corn with Tomatoes (p. 382) 
Corn Pudding (p. 382) 
Baked Tomatoes (p. 382) 
Broiled Tomatoes (p. 383) 
Tomatoes with Okra (p. 383) 



* Stuffed Peppers (p. 383) 
Baked or Broiled Egg Plant 

(p. 383) 
"Stewed Ehubarb (p. 384) 
Cream of Celery Soup (p. 377) 
Tomato Soup (p. 377) 
Cream of Potato Soup (p. 377) 
Lima Bean Soup (p. 378) 
Sliced Cucumber Salad (p. 

375) 
Grape Fruit Salad (p. 375) 
Tomato and Pineapple Salad 

(p. 375) 
White Beans with Rice (j). 38-1) 
Red Beans or Prijoles (p. 384) 



CHAPTER YI 

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUITS AND 
VEGETABLES : MAKING JELLIES 

(Review Yeast, Mold, and Bacteria, page 28) 

CANNING 

As all fruits and vegetables spoil because of the growth of 
microscopic plants in them, they may be preserved by any means 
that will destroy the bacteria, yeasts, and molds present and keep 
others from entering. These tiny plants are found everywhere, 
particularly in dust. Like the yeast plant, they all require food, 
moisture, and warmth for growth, and like the yeast plant they 
die if heated very hot. Some of them, however, can stand great 
heat, because at a certain stage of their growth they are in the 
form of spores which boiling will not destroy. If they are heated 
very hot for three successive days all bacteria will be killed, 
as each day a part of them will be in a form that cannot stand 
the heat. The spores may be compared to a seed, a sprouted 
seed being easy to kill, while a hard dry one is not. Drying also 
destroys bacteria. 

Experiment I. Put a slice of fresh apple or other fruit into a small 
screw-top jar, cover with cold water, and seal. Set aside for a week and 
then note condition. 

Experiment II. Eepeat Experiment I but heat jar for one hour, as 
directed for Canning Fruit with Single Cooking, page 110. Compare re- 
sults. Where was decomposition going on? What causes fruit to spoil? 
Why does subjecting it to heat by cooking prevent it from spoiling? Why 
is sealing necessary? 

Experiment III. Repeat II, but remove lid after heating. 

Two Methods of Canning. There are two ways of can- 
ning — one in which the fruit or vegetable is heated only once, the 

108 



CANNING AND PEESEKVING 



109 



other where it is heated on three successive days. The latter 
method is 'the more satisfactory for the home canner. Acid 
fruits and vegetables may be canned by the first method if pre- 
ferred, although the second method is the surest. 

The Cost. Home canned fruits and vegetables are far 
cheaper than the commercial product, even if the material is 
purchased. When it is home grown there is of course a greater 
saving, and the quality is usually better because the home canner 
will not use green or overripe fruits. 




SOME GOOD TYPES OF JARS AND GLASSES 



Selecting the Material. Can fruits and vegetables when in 
season. The home grown fruits are usually the best, but in some 
localities the shipped fruits are the only ones available. If they 
have been long in cold storage they will not be satisfactory. 
Select fresh, crisp, medium-sized fruits and vegetables. 

The best fruits for canning are pears, plums, peaches, figs, 
apples, pineapples, and cherries. Among the vegetables, toma- 
toes, corn, beans, beets, okra, asparagus, pumpkin, and sweet 
potatoes are very satisfactory. 

The Best Jars. Use glass jars for canning — they are far 
safer and really no more costly than tins, as a tin can should 



110 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

not be used more than once, while glass jars can be used for 
years and very few will be broken if carefully handled. 

The jars with glass tops fastened by a wire spring attached 
to the jar are the most satisfactory. Select jars of a size to suit 
your family, and buy new rubbers each time a jar is used. Test 
jars by filling them with water, sealing, and inverting. If water 
escapes, lid or rubber is defective. 

Canning Fruit With Three Cookings. Use perfectly smooth 
enameled pans and kettles and Avooden spoons in the cooking 
process. Use no tin or iron. Have everything very clean. Pre- 
pare the fruit and pack it in the jar tightly up to within an inch 
of the top. Fill with whatever liquid is to be used. Put on the 
rubber and the lid, but do not fasten the lid down. Then place 
the jar on a rack or folded cloth in a large kettle that can be 
closely covered. Pour in enough water to reach up several inches 
on the jars, cover the kettle, and place it over the fire. "When hot 
lift the lids and add sugar, if it is to be used, from 14 c. to 1 c. 
of sugar to 1 quart jar of fruit, depending on the acidity of fruit. 
Bring to the boiling point and boil for ten minutes. Then fasten 
on the lids and (for most fruits) boil for thirty minutes; put in 
a place free from a draft to cool. On second and third days, 
arrange the jars as on the first day and boil for twenty minutes. 
Do not open the jar after the first sealing. 

Canned Peaches 

Use firm, solid fruit. Peel and cut in half. If clingstone peaches are 
used, they may be canned whole. Fill each jar as the peaches are peeled 
and add water so that they will not discolor. Proceed according to general 
directions. After sealing on first day, boil for ten minutes; on two suc- 
ceeding days boil for twenty minutes. Small pieces of fruit may be canned 
in the same way for pies, using one-fourth cup of sugar. 

Canning Pniit With Single Cooking. Proceed as directed 
above, but fasten down the lids after first heating, and boil for 
one hour before storing. This method may be used for most 
acid fruits that are not dense in texture, but it is not desirable 
for solid fruits or for vegetables. 



CANNING AND PRESERVING HI 

Fruit Cooked Before Canning. Make a syrup, using one-third of the 
weight of the fruit in sugar, and allowing three cups of water for each 
pound of sugar ; for example, to six pounds of fruit allow two pounds of 
sugar and six cups of water. Boil the syrup for ten minutes, using a shallow 
kettle. Put in the pared fruit, cut in halves, and cook gently until tender. 
Pack closely in hot sterilized .jars. (See Preserving, page 112.) Fill with 
syrup, and seal. 

Fruit may be cooked in water and canned in this way. Berries 
do not require water.. 

Canning Vegetables. Proceed according to the general 
directions for canning, but cook vegetables for fifteen minutes 
before sealing, then for forty-five minutes. Boil for one hour 
on second and third days. Cook mixed vegetables for one 
hour and thirty minutes. As the water around the jars boils 
down replenish with boiling water, never icith cold. Store 
canned foods in a cool, dry, dark place. 

Com 

Select tender sweet corn and can as soon as possible after picking. Pre- 
pare the corn as for cooking, then cut a very thin slice from the top of 
each row of grains, and scrape with the back of a knife. Put the pulp 
into pint jars, add one-fourth teaspoonful of salt, and fill with cold water. 
Proceed as directed. 

String Beans 

Wash and string tender beans. Boil in a sack or wire basket for ten 
minutes. Drain, cool slightly, and pack in jars. Proceed as for corn. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Why does continued cooking preserve fruits and vegetables'? What jars 
are most desirable? Why not open the jars after the first sealing? Tell 
how to select fruit or vegetables for canning. Estimate the cost of one 
dozen jars of home canned corn, beans, tomatoes, plums, peaches, or berries, 
including fuel. When tomatoes are eighty cents a bushel, how much will 
twelve quart jars of the vegetable cost? How does this compare with those 
bought at the grocery? Do you raise your vegetables or buy them? Tell 
how to can corn, tomatoes, okra. How should canned foods be stored? Do 
canned fruit and vegetables take the place of fresh ones in a person's diet? 



112 'J'HE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

PEESEEVING 

Fruit is made into preserves by being cooked with sugar until 
quite thick, then sealed while hot. Preserves do not fill the place 
of fresh fruit in the diet and must be ranked with sweets. 
Peaches, plums, pears, figs, the rind of Avatermelon, and tomatoes 
are all used for preserves. 

Fruit must be in good condition — not overripe. If it is de- 
sirable to preserve the shape, be very careful in handling the 
fruit. For soft fruits, such as well ripened peaches, a syrup is 
prepared first, then the fruit is added and cooked until clear. 
Where color and shape are not so important, the fruit and sugar 
may be cooked together. Syrup burns easily, so the cooking must 
be gentle. Use a shallow kettle for preserves, for if the mass is 
heavy the shape of individual fruit is spoiled. 

The proportion of sugar to fruit varies according to the acid- 
ity. Water is used in making the syrup for the drier fruits, such 
as plums, while berries, figs, and tomatoes require no water. 

To Sterilize Jars and Glasses. After washing them very 
clean, lay jars and lids on a rack or towel in a kettle and cover 
with cold water. Heat gradually to the boiling point and boil 
for 15 to 20 minutes. Keep them hot until ready to use. Lift 
out with a long fork, set on a towel, and fill immediately with 
hot fruit. After a jar is filled, pass the handle of a silver spoon 
that has been scalded, around inside the jar to force out air bub- 
bles. Adjust the rubber and fasten on the lid. 

*Japanese Plums 

Prepare a syrup, allowing three-fourths of a pound of sugar to one 
pound of fruit, and half a cup of water to each pound of sugar. Bring the 
syrup to the boiling point. Skim. Then cook until moderately thick. Add 
the fruit, first pricking the skin with a knitting needle four or five times. 
Cook gently until clear and until the syrup is thick. 

Peaches 

Pare the fruit and proceed as above, using one-half cup of water to a 
half pound of sugar for the syrup. 



CANNING AND PRESERVING 113 

Orange Mannalade 

Use six oranges, one lemon, twice the weight of fruit in sugar, and twice 
the weight of fruit in water. 

Wash the fruit well and cut first in half horizontally, then into very thin 
slices. Remove the seeds. Put into a porcelain bowl. Pour the water in 
and let soak over night. Turn into a saucepan and cook gently until tender 
• — about one and one-half hours being required. Then add the sugar and 
cook gently until the rind is clear and the marmalade jellies when tested. 
(See Test for Jelly, page 114.) Put into sterilized glasses and seal. 

Peach Sweet Pickles 

Use 7 lbs. peaches, 4 lbs. sugar, 1 qt. vinegar, 2 oz. stick cinnamon. 

Peel, or scald and rub, clingstone peaches. Stick four cloves into each 
peach. Cook sugar, vinegar, and cinnamon for twenty minutes, add the 
peaches, and cook gently until tender. Pack in jars and cover with the 
syrup. Seal while hot. Pickles, owing to the condiments used, are more 
difficult to digest than preserves. 

MAKING JELLY 

Experiment IV. To 2 tbsp. hot cooked fruit juice add 2 tbsp. absolute 
alcohol; stir and cool. If a gelatinous mass forms in bottom of dish, the 
juice contains pectin. 

The juice of most acid fruit contains a jelly-like substance 
known as pectin or pectose. When the juice is cooked, a jelly 
is formed ; if sugar is added the jelly forms before the juice is 
much reduced and a better flavor is secured. Jellies are more 
digestible than preserves. The general proportion of sugar to 
juice varies according to acidity. From three-fourths to one 
pound is the usual allowance for one pint of juice. If the juice 
is very watery the smaller quantity of sugar is used. If too much 
sugar is used, the juice will not jelly but will form a syrup. Fruit 
for jelly must be rather underripe, for if overripe there is too 
little pectose. Berries should not be used if they have been picked 
just after a rain, as they will then contain too much water. Over- 
cooked jelly is apt to be somewhat stringy rather than firm and 
tender. From what fruits can you make jelly ? What kinds can- 
not be so used ? 

The Jelly Bag. For making a jelly bag, use a piece of 
doubled cheesecloth. 



114 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 




* Plum Jelly 

Use acid plums. Wash and turn them into a preserving kettle. Add 
just enough water to prevent their burning — not more than one cup to a 
gallon of fruit. Boil for twenty minutes, lifting them from the bottom to 
prevent sticking. When all the skins are broken and the juice runs freely 
stir well and turn into a jelly bag. Let drain over night into a porcelain 

bowl. Measure the juice and allow 

three-fourths pound of sugar to 
each pint of juice. Put the sugar 
into a moderately hot oven and 
leave until quite hot. Heat the 
juice and let it boil for ten min- 
utes. Then add the hot sugar, and 
as soon as the sugar is melted, 
test. If it jellies, turn into hot 
sterilized glasses, and seal. Keep 
in a cool, dry closet. 

The Test for Jelly. As 

soon as the sugar is dissolved 
in the juice, put a spoonful 
of it on an ice-cold saucer in 
a cool place. In a few mo- 
ments draw the tip of a 
spoon across the surface. If 
it makes a film or skin the 
jelly is done. If not, repeat 
the test almost immediately, as the jelly forms very rapidly. 
Jelly may also be tested by pouring a little from the spoon. If 
it breaks off in drops or flakes it is done. 

Sealing Jelly. Seal jelly immediately by a cover of hot 
paraffin which has been melted in a small saucepan. As the 
paraffin shrinks a little when cool, the lid must be put on im- 
mediately and a strip of paper pasted over the joining of glass 

and lid. 

Jelly from Berries 

Wash and drain the berries. Warm on the back of the range until 
juice flows freely. Then mash through a sieve, drain through a jelly bag, 
and proceed as for plum jelly. Currants, blackberries, and dewberries may 






CONVENIENT JELLY BAG 



CANNING AND PRESEEVING 



115 



be used in this way. In the west a sour little berry known by its Spanish 
name of agrito (that is, ''the little sour one") grows, and may be used for 
jelly. Use just enough water to cover the bottom of the kettle and cook 
it very slightly, as the seeds give a bitter flavor. 



QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What is the food value of jellies and preserves.^ Do they fill the place 
of fresh fruits? What does a quart of preserves cost? Which is cheaper 
during the winter, preserves or apples? What does a glass of home-made 
jelly cost? How does this compare with that bought at the grocery? Read 
the label of the jelly purchased. Is it pure? What is glucose? (See 
Sugar, page 235.) Is it used in commercial jellies and preserves? Is your 
sample of jelly colored ? What does your pure food law say about coloring 
matter and other adulterants in jellies and preserves? Give the test for 
jelly. Why heat the sugar? Tell how to sterilize jars and glasses. Why 
must jelly be sealed while hot? Have you ever seen any moldy jelly? Why 
did it mold? 

Supplementary Becipes 



Canned Corn with Tomatoes 

(p. 379) 
*Canned Tomatoes (p. 379) 
Canned Okra (p. 379) 
*Canned Mixture for Soup (p. 

379) 
*Canned Sweet Potatoes (p. 

379) 
Canned Pumpkin (p. 379) 
Canned Rhubarb (p. 380) 
Canned Plums (p. 366) 



Canned Pears (p. 366) 
Canned Huckleberries (p. 367) 
Canned Cherries (p. 367) 
Watermelon Rind Preserves (p. 

374) 
Fig Preserves (p. 374) 
Tomato Preserves (p. 374) 
Wild Grape Jelly (p. 367) 
* Apple Jelly (p. 367) 
Apple Butter (p. 374) 



CHAPTER VII 



STARCHES 



COMPOSITION OF CEEEALS 

CARBO- CALORIES 

WATER TROTEIN FAT HYDRATE FIBER ASH PER LB. 

Barley, granulated.. 10.9 7.5 .9 79.8 .7 .9 1660 

Cornmeal 10.3 7.5 4.2 65.9 10.9 1.2 1545 

Boiled oats 7.7 16.7 7.:'. 66.2 2.1 2.1 1850 

Cracked wheat 10.1 11.1 1.7 75.5 1.7 1.6 1685 

Shredded wheat 8.1 10.5 1.4 77.9 1.7 2.1 1700 

Macaroni 10.3 13.4 .9 74.1 ... 1.3 1665 

Flour, spring wheat. 12.3 11.7 1.1 74.5 .1 .4 1650 

Flour, winter wheat. 13.3 11. .9 74.4 .3 .4 1625 

Graham flour 11.3 13.3 2.2 71.4 1.9 1.8 1670 

Whole wheat flour... 11.4 13.8 1.9 71.9 .9 1. 1675 

White yeast bread. . 35.6 9.3 1.2 52.7 .5 1.2 1205 

Cornstarch 90 1675 

Tapioca 11.4 .4 .1 88. .1 .1 1650 

The group of carbohydrates Is divided into starches 
and sugars. The starches are found in fruits and vegetables, 
while an animal starch known as glycogen is found in liver. 

Starch may be separated from different food stuffs, such as 
wheat, corn, and potatoes. Pure starch is a fine, glistening, 
white powder, seen in the form of cornstarch used for puddings 
and in laundry starch. Pure starch contains water and carbon. 

How can we tell whether or not starch is present in a food? (See 
Experiment I, page 43.) What does starch give the body? Let us see if 
we can separate starch from the other materials in potatoes or cereals. 

Experiment I. Grate a pared potato, and squeeze the pulp into a 
piece of cheesecloth held over a bowl, letting the juice settle. Then drain 
off the liquid, add a little water to the sediment, and boil. Test for 
starch. Examine the pulp left in the cloth — it contains much cellulose. 

116 



STARCHES 117 

Experiment II. Eub a teaspoonful of oatmeal in half a cup of cold 
water for several minutes. Pour through a sieve. Boil the water and test 
for starch. (See Experiment I, page 43.) 

Experiment III. Put the thinnest slice of raw potato you can cut under 
the microscope and note the appearance of the starch cells. Examine also 
cornstarch, laundry starch, and rice starch. Make drawings. 

Experiment IV. Rub to a paste one teaspoonful of cornstarch mixed 
with a tablespoonful of cold water. Add one-half cup of boiling water. Stir 
constantly and bring to the boiling point. Stir until it thickens, and note 
thickness. 

Experiment V. Stir one teaspoonful of cornstarch into one-half cup of 
boiling water and note the result. Break open one of the lumps formed. 
What is the condition of the starch inside the lump? Repeat this experi- 
ment, using flour. 

Experiment VL Mix together one teaspoonful of sugar and one of 
cornstarch. Pour over the mixture one-half cup of boiling water, stirring 
all the time. Does it lump? Why? (See Cornstarch Pudding, page 252.) 
Why do we use cornstarch or flour in sauces? 

Experiment VII. Brown a little cornstarch or flour in the oven. Then 
repeat Experiment IV, substituting one teaspoonful of the browned starch 
for the raw cornstarch, and note thickness. Repeat, using browned flour. 
Compare the thickness of the mixture in Experiment IV with the one thick- 
ened with browned starch or flour. What effect has browning on flour or 
starch? If browned flour is substituted for raw flour in a sauce or gravy 
would more or less be used? 

Experiment VIII. Cut a very thin slice from a washed and pared 
potato. Put it into a cup, and let water run over it for fifteen minutes. 
Then pour diluted iodine over it. Treat an unwashed slice in the same way 
and compare the colors of the two. Cook soaked and unwashed slices in 
different saucepans. Cover with the iodine solution and note the color. 
What food element is removed by soaking? 

EFFECT OF COOKING ON STARCHES 

Moist heat causes the starch grains to swell so that the coating 
of cellulose is broken and softened. After being softened and 
swollen, the starch is said to be gelatinized. This may take place 
below the boiling point but most starches are more thoroughly 
cooked by high temperatures. Raw starches cause much 
digestive trouble. Cook all starches thoroughly. 

Dry heat changes starch to dextrin, a form of sugar that is 
very soluble. This change takes place in the crust of bread, 



118 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



and for this reason the crust is more digestible than the center 
portion of a loaf. 

Starch and flour (which is largely starch) are much used for 
the thickening or binding together of other foods, for example, 
gravies, sauces, and cream soups. In making white sauces, the 
chief end is to secure a smooth mixture without lumps, free from 
any gluey appearance and perfectly blended with the fat used. 
Sauces made by adding the flour to hot fat are not easily 
digested because the fat is overheated and each starch grain is 
coated with fat. 



THE MAKING OF WHITE SAUCE 

(Each group of two pupils is to use one-half of recipe.) 

Table for White Sauce 



KIND 


BUTTER 


FLOUR 


MILK 


USE 


No. 1 

*No. 2 

No. 3 


1 tbsp. 

2 tbsp. 

2 tbsp. 


1 tbsp. 

2 tbsp. 

4 tbsp. 


1 C. 
1 C. 

1 c. 


soups 
vegetables 
j creamed dishes 
[ croquettes 



Experiment IX. ( For older pupils.) Eepeat Experiment IV, using 
quantities given in table. Compare results. Repeat Experiment IX, using 
browned flour. How much browned flour would be needed to thicken sauce 
No. 2? Would this be a desirable consistency for sauces? 

Reserve as much cold milk as there is flour to be added 
to the sauce. Scald the remainder of the milk. (See Cocoa, 
page 81.) Rub the cold milk with the flour until it makes a 
smooth paste. Add to it the scalded milk, stirring all the time. 
Return it to the double boiler and cook for fifteen minutes. Con- 
tinue stirring until it thickens, then stir only occasionally. Add 
the salt and ])utter when ready to serve the sauce. It may be 
kept for half an hour or longer over hot w^ater. 

Experiment X. Thickening Power of Starches. (For older pupils.) 
Repeat Experiment IV, using cornstarch, also flour. Compare thickening 
power. Why do they differ? 



STAECHES 



119 



Experiment XI. Let different groups add 1, 1^2, and 2 tbsp. of corn- 
starch to boiling water, as in Experiment IV. When cold, note consistency. 
(See Cornstarch Pudding, page 252.) "What is the proportion of starch in 
the pudding recipe? In Lemon Sauce? (See page 252.) Why is a large 
quantity of cornstarch objectionable? How much cornstarch equals one egg 
in thickening power? (See Custards, page 132.) 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

Into what groups are carbohydrates divided? Of what use to the body 
is starch? What foods are rich in starch? What is the proportion of 
carbohydrates in your diet? What j)art of this is starch? Tell what you 
can of the digestion of starch. Why does cooking thicken a starch mix- 
ture? Why is cooked starch easier to digest than raw starch? Why should 
cereals be allowed to come to the boiling point before being put in the 
double boiler? How does dry heat affect starchy foods? Why is the crust 
of bread easily digested? What is meant by sauce? What is the appear- 
ance of a good white sauce? For what is it used? Tell how to make white 
sauce. What are the proportions for a thin sauce? A medium sauce? For 
what could each be used? What is the proportion of thickening in thick 
sauce? What is the best proportion of cornstarch to liquid for puddings? 



THE CEEEALS 
Table for Cooking Cereals 















TIME 


BULK 


COST 


KIND 


METHOD 


QU.\N- 
HTY 


WATER 


SALT 


TIME 


OVER 

FLAME 


WHEN 
COOKED 


PER 
SERVING 


* Cream of wheat 


Steamed in 


















double boiler . 


Ic. 


5 c. 


1 tsp. 


Ih. 


10 m. 






Cracked wheat. 


Fireless cooker. 


1 c. 


4 c. 


1 tsp. 


5h. 


20 m. 






*Eolled oats. . . . 


Double boiler. . 


2 c. 


4 c. 


1 tsp. 


IHh. 


10 m. 






Cornmeal mush 


On range or 








5h. 










in fireless . . . 


Ic. 


5 c. 


1 tsp. 


10 h. 


10 m. 






Coarse hominy. 


Fireless cooker 


4 c. 


4 qts. 


1 tsp. 


5h. 


3^h. 






Fine grits 


On range 


Ic. 


4 c. 


1 tsp. 


Ih. 


10 m. 






Rice, boiled . . . 


On range 


Ic. 


4 c. 


1 t3p. 


40 m 


10 m. 






Eice . . 


Fireless cooker . 


1 c. 


3 c. 


1 tsp. 


2h. 


5 m. 






Eice, steamed. . 


Double boiler. . 


Ic. 


3 c. 


1 tsp. 


H h. 


10 m. 






Eice, boiled and 


















steamed 


On range 


Ic. 


3 qts. 


1 tsp. 


20 m 


20 m. 






Eice, boiled and 


















drained 


On range 


Ic. 


3 qts. 


1 tsp. 


45 m. 


20 m. 






Macaroni 


On range 


M c. 


2 (its. 


1 tbsp. 


Till 
tender 
30-40 

m. 


All 

time 







120 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

(Eeview Experiment II, page 117) 

Grains or cereals form a large part of our food. Bring 
samples of whole grains of wheat, rice, and corn. Compare 
their composition. Which class of food is abundant in all of 
them? Which cereal has the most protein? Fat? 

In preparing most cereals for food the outer hull is removed 
and they are then cracked, crushed, or rolled ; a few of them are 
used whole. Rice is an example of this. All cereals have a 
tough skin called cellulose that covers the starch grains. When 
cornmeal is sifted some cellulose is found in the sieve. This 
skin is very tough in corn ; therefore mush, grits, and hominy 
need long cooking. Cereals are starchy foods, and therefore must 
be well cooked. Thorough cooking in boiling water also devel- 
ops the flavor. If cereals are not well cooked they have a 
raw taste. 

Serving Cereals. In warm weather rice and fine wheat 
preparations are the most suitable cereals to use as they are 
not rich in fat. In cold weather oatmeal, cracked wheat, corn- 
meal, grits, and hominy also are good. Cereals are served with 
milk or cream because the combination furnishes the food which 
our bodies require. Sugar is not needed, as cereals are largely 
composed of starch, which serves the same function in our bodies 
as sugar. If children have formed the habit of eating sugar on 
their cereals encourage them to use very little. Sprinkle it on 
with a sugar shaker. 

Do not serve any sour fruits with cereals, even if you have 
sweetened them well, as acids interfere with the digestion of 
starches. Take a mouthful of dry toast now and then when 
you are eating cereals so that you will chew more carefully. 

The Ready-to-Serve Cereals. In some ready-to-serve cereals 
only a part of the original grain is used, and their food value 
cannot be found except by chemical analysis. These prepara- 
tions are usually more expensive than the cereals cooked at home. 
Compare cost and food value of a serving of a ready prepared 
cereal and of one cooked at home. 



STAECHES 121 

Steam Cooked Cereals. Rolled oats and wheat, and the 
fine wheat preparations have been steamed at the factory and 
do not need such long cooking as cornmeal, grits, and other 
raw grains. 

Keeping Cereals. Pour cereals into glass jars and keep 
tightly covered in a cool place. Cereals containing fat grow 
rancid or musty in warm weather or when kept in a warm 
place. Test by smelling. If musty they are not fit for food. If 
a cereal has insects or little webbed balls in it do not use it, as 
the balls contain the eggs of insects. 

COOKING CEREALS IN THE DOUBLE BOILER 
* Class Recipe 1 c. Water. (See Table, page 119, for Quantity of Cereal.) 

Measure the required amount of water. Put it into the 
upper kettle of the double boiler and place it directly over the 
fire. When it boils add the salt. Then sprinkle in the cereal a 
little at a time, so as not to stop the boiling. Stir briskly all the 
time, so that each little grain is kept by itself. If lumps form, 
the grains on the inside cannot swell and burst with the heat 
and will not be fit for food. The starch grains swell when heated 
just as popcorn does. Cereals must be added slowly to boiling 
water and cooked rapidly at first, then gently. If the cereal is 
about to run over, lower the heat or raise the pan from the flame. 
Do not strike the edge of the kettle sharply with your spoon as 
the metal will be dented or, if of enameled ware, chips will fall 
into the food. 

Putting the Cereal to Steam. Boil cereal over the flame 
for five or ten minutes, according to the quantity; then 
add sweet, dried fruit if desired. Wipe the inside of the top 
part of the kettle, and smooth the cereal with a spoon. Cover 
and set the kettle over the lower part of the boiler and steam 
according to time given in the table. Put the lower kettle on 
to heat when you start the cereal to cooking. Fill it one-third 
full of water. Watch the lower kettle and add more boiling 



j^22 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

water if it is in danger of boiling dry. When the cereal is 
removed, fill the kettle with cold water so that it may be easily 
cleaned. Cook all steamed cereals by this method. 

COOKING CEEEALS DIRECTLY OVER THE FIRE 

Cornmeal, grits, coarse hominy, boiled rice, etc., should be 
cooked directly over the fire. Use a thick saucepan, and proceed 
as for steamed cereals, pushing the vessel to the back of the 
range, or lowering the heat instead of steaming over water. 

Cooking Cereals in Fireless Cooker. Cover closely and cook 
over the flame as directed. When it is boiling briskly, put 
cereal on a very hot radiator in the fireless cooker. 

* USING LEFT-OVER CEREALS 

If any cereal is left from a meal, put it away carefully in a cool place, 
as it sours quickly; in hot weather keep in the ice-box. While still warm 
pour it into custard cups that have been dipped in cold water, filling each 
cup half full. When you are ready to serve, turn it into a cereal bowl. 
If you wish it warmed, turn it into a smooth pan, cover and put it into 
the oven or steam for about twenty minutes, and then lift with a spatula 
to the cereal bowls. 

Browned Cereals 

Turn grits, or any of the fine wheat preparations, or mush, while 
warm, into an enameled pan that has been dipped in cold water. When 
ready to serve, cut it into squares, dip into egg and crumbs, and place on 
well greased tins in a hot oven for fifteen minutes. Leave until it be- 
comes a golden brown. Serve hot with meats or for breakfast with 
brown sugar or maple syrup. 

Dipping into Eggs and Crumhs. Beat together one egg and two table- 
spoonfuls of cold water until well mixed. Dip the squares of cereal into 
flour, then into the egg, and then into fine cracker or bread crumbs. The 
cereal must be well coated with crumbs, but if too many are put on they 
will fall off and burn in the yan. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

How are cereals prepared for food? Through how many hands do 
they pass before reaching your table? Is the process of manufacture 
clean ? 



STARCHES 123 

What is the composition of cereals? Review Experiment II, page 117. 
What food element is most abundant in cereals'? What cereals are suitable 
for hot weather? What proportion of a serving of rolled oats is water? 

What is cellulose? Review Experiments I and III, pages 116, 117. Why 
do most cereals require long cooking? How is the flavor affected by it? 

Why do we serve milk or cream with cereals (see Composition of Milk, 
page 136)? Why is sugar not needed? Why serve dry toast with cereals? 
What fruits may be served with cereals? Why not serve acid fruits? 

What ready-to-serve cereals do you use? How does the food value in 
them compare with that of home-cooked cereals? 

What cereals could you prepare at home? Would it be convenient and 
economical to prepare them? What steam-cooked cereals do you use? 
Which requires longer cooking, cream of wheat or oatmeal? Why? What 
raw grains do you use? How does the time required for cooking them com- 
pare with that for the steam-cooked? Tell how cereal should be stored. 
How can you tell whether or not a cereal is good? Why does it grow 
musty? Why do you sprinkle the cereal into the boiling water slowly? 
What are the two important points in cooking cereals? What cereals would 
you cook in a double boiler? How much water is needed for one cup of 
oats? How much salt? What food elements in oatmeal? What food do we 
serve with it? What food elements in milk? What use could you make 
of left-over oatmeal, cream of wheat, or grits? 



RICE 

One of the most valuable grains is rice. It has not as much 
tissue building food as oats, wheat, or corn, but, like potatoes, 
it gives us energy producing food. Owing to the fineness of its 
cellulose it is easily digested. It may be used equally well as a 
cereal, as a vegetable with meats, instead of potatoes, and, 
cooked with milk and eggs and dried fruits, as a dessert. 

Selecting Rice. The best rice has long, slim grains, as the 
short plump grains do not keep their shape when cooked. The 
broken rice, while not as attractive when cooked as the whole 
grams, has an equal food value and is cheaper. Rice should be 
free from dirt and weevils. The unpolisliecl rice is better than 
the very white rice. 

Cooking Rice. All rice needs careful washing. As some 
of it is coated with a kind of syrup and a fine powder known as 
talc, it should be washed carefully through three or four waters 



124 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

by being rubbed between the hands. Rice may be boiled or 
steamed. 

* Boiled Rice (Class Recipe — See Table, page 119) 

2 c. water to i/4 c. rice, i/4 tsp. salt. (As evaporation is more rapid in a 
small quantity more water is needed.) 

Use a broad shallow kettle for rice, and proceed as for cereals cooked 
over the fire. Stir twice at three minute intervals when first put into 
the kettle. When the rice thickens so that there is danger of its burn- 
ing, put the kettle on the back of the range, or put an asbestos mat 
under it and lower the heat if over a gas flame. Then cover closely and 
let cook slowly until done 

When the rice is done, all the water should be taken up, and each grain 
should be soft, but not mushy, and should stand apart from the others. 
If rice is stirred after it begins to soften, or if it is cooked in too thick a 
layer, it will be pasty. 

Boiled Rice Drained. Use a rather deep kettle. Add one teaspoonful of 
butter or cream to the water before putting in the rice, and boil for twenty 
minutes. Turn into a colander and pour a quart of boiling water over it, 
and drain well. Put the colander in a baking plate in a moderately hot 
oven for fifteen minutes. Serve hot. 

* Steamed Rice (Class Recipe) 

1/4 c. rice % c. water ^4 tsp. salt 

Cook in a double boiler as directed for cereals. Boil over flame for five 
minutes, then steam without stirring. When soft, lift lightly from bottom 
of the kettle with a fork and dry over a low heat by placing the upper kettle 
directly over the fire for a few moments. 

Left-Over Rice 

Use as directed for other cereals. Form into a steamed rice border for 
meats, use in a casserole for croquettes, for stuffing tomatoes or peppers, 
or in puddings. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Where does rice grow? Have you seen it growing? What is the price 
of rice by the pound? What part of a pound is used in serving one person? 
How much water did you use in boiling one cup of rice in the first recipe? 
Measure the cooked rice. What is the difference in quantity? How long 
did you cook the rice? What is the chief food element in rice? How would 
you utilize left-over rice? 



STAECHES 125 

MACARONI AND OTHER PASTES 

Macaroni, vermicelli, and spaghetti are all called Italian 
pastes. Tliey are made from a kind of wheat that has more 
protein in it than common wheat has. Very good macaroni is 
made in this count rj^ from Durum Wheat. A mixture of flour 
and water is used to make these pastes. Macaroni cooked with 
cheese takes the place of meat ; with butter or tomato it may be 
served with meat. 

Good macaroni is a light grayish color and feels rough to 
the fingers. The sticks may be broken into short lengths with- 
out splitting. When cooked it holds its shape and swells to 
twice its former size. Macaroni that falls to pieces when cook- 
ing has been made from flour that contains too much starch. 

* Boiled Macaroni (Class Recipe) 

i/i c. macaroni 2 c. boiling water % tsp. salt 

Wipe the macaroni with a clean cloth, break it into inch lengths, and 
drop into boiling salted water. Boil until quite tender — about thirty or forty 
minutes. Test the macaroni by cutting a piece with the side of a fork — if 
it is perfectly tender, it is done. Pour it into a small sieve and drain. 
Then pour a quart of boiling water over it to wash off the loose starch. 
Why must it be thoroughly cooked? 

* Macaroni with Cheese (Class Recipe) 

1 tbsp. grated cheese 3 tbsp. bread or cracker crumbs 

1/4 c. boiled macaroni 4 tbsp. White Sauce No. 2 (See Sauces) 

Butter two custard cups, using a bit of soft paper dipped in a little 
melted butter. Put a layer of macaroni in the cup and then a thin layer 
of grated cheese. Add more macaroni and cheese until the cup is two- 
thirds full. Pour in enough white sauce to cover it well. Sprinkle the 
top with crumbs and bake in a hot oven until the crumbs are a golden 
brown. 

For home use take % c. macaroni, 1 tbsp. salt, 2 qts. boiling water, 2 e. 
medium white sauce, ^^ c. crumbs. Cook as directed above and bake in a 
pudding dish. 

To Grate Cheese. Use a coarse grater and very firm cheese. If the 
cheese is soft, press it through a coarse sieve or slice it in very thin flakes. 



126 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Bread and Cracker Crumhs. Use stale bread, and roll on a board or 
grate on a coarse grater. If the bread is not crisji, dry in a moderate oven. 
Cool and then roll. If fine crumbs are needed, sift the crushed bread. 
Cracker crumbs may be prepared in the same way. 

* Spaghetti with Tomato Sauce 

1/^ box spaghetti or 2 qts. boiling water 

1 c. broken in inch lengths 1 tbsp. salt 

Wash and cook the broken spaghetti as directed for macaroni. If the 
long pieces are used, hold the sticks in a bunch and lower them into the 
water. As they soften bend them into a coil. Cook until soft. Then drain 
and pour a cup and a half of tomato sauce over them. One-half cup of 
grated cheese may be added to the sauce. Stir in the cheese and as soon 
as it melts pour it over the spaghetti. This will take the place of a meat 
dish. 

* Tomato Sauce (Class Recipe Vi) 

(Keview Sauces) 

2 c. of fresh or 2 tbsp. flour 
canned tomato pulp 2 tbsp. butter 

2 slices carrot 1 sprig of parsley 

1 slice onion 

Chop the vegetables, add them to the tomato and gently cook for half an 
hour. Rub the tomato mixture through a coarse sieve, getting as much of 
the pulp through as possible. Put the tomato back into the saucepan. Rub 
the flour with three tablespoonfuls of cold water. When the paste is very 
smooth add it to the tomato and bring all to the boiling point. When it 
thickens, add the butter and salt to taste, and pour it over the spaghetti. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

From what are the Italian pastes made? Why does macaroni need to be 
well cooked? What kind of food is macaroni? Look at the table and see 
what percentage of carbohydrate there is in macaroni. Which has the more 
protein, macaroni or rice? Why not serve macaroni and cheese with meat? 
What brand of macaroni do you use? Is it good? How can you judge? 
Have you ever visited a macaroni factory? If so, tell about it. 

Supplementary Becipes 

Coarse Hominy (p. 367) Rice Croquettes with Jelly (p. 359) 

Cracked Wheat (p. 384) 



CHAPTER VIII 



EGGS 



Eggs have a very high food value. When served raw or prop- 
erly cooked, they are especially good for the delicate and for 
children. When overcooked, however, they become tough and 
are not easily digested. 




.Gertn from wh leh 

chtcKcrv develops 

__ . , \" -Air 4>pdLCe. 

'\| V'f -5l<in. linind of -the shell 

lr)-f — / Twio+ed white cord& upon 

^^ ' ' which the yolKrevo\\^e& 

-5hell 



Composition of Eggs. Shell 11%. White 57%. Yolk 32%. 
The edible parts: water 73.7%; protein 4.8%; fat 10.5%; ash 
1%. Calories per pound, 720. Yolk, 1680 Calories. White, 265 
Calories. The yolk contains phosphorus, iron, calcium, magnesia, 
potassium. In the albumin there is sulphur, which gives bad 
eggs their distinctive odor. Egg white is 86% water, 12.3% 
albumin, and the remainder mineral. The yolk is 49.5% water, 
16% protein, and about 33.3% fat. The remainder is made up 
of various minerals. 

What food element is lacking? Compare the composition of eggs and 
milk. What foods do we serve with eggs? What is the food element in 
sugar? Is sugar used with eggs? When meat is served, which is the more 
appropriate dessert — a custard or pudding of milk and eggs, or fresh fruit? 
Why do eggs tarnish silver? 

127 



128 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



The structure of the Egg. To break a fresh egg hold it 
with the small end down, and strike it a sharp bloAV with the 
blade of a knife. Turn it out of shell into a saucer and inspect 
carefully. Note the position of the yolk and the white, and the 
round spot in the yolk. This spot is the germ. (See cut, page 
127.) When the egg is kept warm this germ begins to grow, 
forming the little chicken. In warm weather growth begins 

almost as soon as the egg is laid. 
Eggs can be kept only a short 
time, unless some very cool place 
is used for storage. Note, also, 
the lining of the shell. Observe 
the color of the white and the 
yolk, and the texture. In fresh 
eggs the white is firm and thick ; 
in old eggs, somewhat watery. 
The color of the egg yolk de- 
pends on the breed of the hen 
which laid the egg and upon the 
food it ate. Hens on a varied 
diet, with an abundance of green 
food, lay eggs with darker yolks 
than those on dry food. A diet 
which is rich in milk gives a pale 
yolk. 

Tests for Freshness. (1) The 
shell should be thick and rough 
if the egg is perfectly fresh. (2) 
Hold the egg between your eye 
and a very strong light in a dark room. (This test is known 
as ' ' candling. " ) If the egg is clear it is fresh ; if cloudy, it is 
old. If it shows a dark spot, it is in the process of incubation. 
The figure shows four eggs of different conditions as revealed 
by examination through a candler. (3) Drop the egg in cold 
water. A fresh egg will sink, an egg a little older shows a ten- 
dency to rise, and an old egg will float. 




(Upper left) a fresh egg, show- 
ing an even tint throughout; (up- 
per right) a shrunken, but still 
eatable, egg with an increasing air- 
space at the large end; (lower 
left) a fungous, "spot" egg, sel- 
dom encountered in the kitchen ; 
(lower right) a rotten egg, almost 
entirely black 



EGGS 129 

PRESERVATION OF EGGS 

Experiment I. Boil an egg in a cochineal solution. What does the 
color denote? Egg shells are porous and must therefore be kept in clean 
places. 

Factors That Influence Keeping Qualities. Since egg shells 
are porous, bacteria enter through the shell and the egg spoils. 
For the same reason the liquid evaporates and the egg becomes 
light. The following general instructions are therefore of impor- 
tance, the first applying only to those who keep chickens: 

1. Hens should be fed a clean mixed diet not too rich in 
protein. Keep the eggs clean by supplying clean nests for 
the hens, and collect the eggs every day. 

2. If you buy eggs, choose clean ones with rough shells 
and of even color and size. If you cannot get clean eggs, wash 
and Avipe them before putting them away. 

3. Pack or wrap the eggs to exclude the air, laying small 
end down. (Why?) To exclude the air from eggs that are to 
be kept for a month or less, rub them, after they have been 
cleaned, with a cloth dipped in vaseline. Eggs may also be kept 
in a solution of lime water, but the flavor will be impaired. If 
eggs are to be kept for only a few days they may be wrapped in 
clean paper. 

4. Whatever means is used for excluding the air, eggs 
should be stored in a cool dry place which is free from any 
strong odors. 

PRESERVING EGGS IN WATER GLASS 

Where eggs are to be kept for some time a solution of potassium silicate 
or sodium silicate known as water glass is the most satisfactory preservative. 
Only unfertilized eggs can be preserved in this manner, for in the fertile 
eggs the embryo or germ develops until the oxygen of the air in the shell 
is exhausted, then dies and decomposes. Eggs so preserved are apt to crack 
when cooked in the shell. The price of water glass varies, but it can be 
obtained from the wholesale drug dealers cheaper than at the retail shops. 
The average price is 25 cents a quart. One quart is enough for fifteen 
dozen eggs. 



130 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Make a ten per cent solution of water glass and boiled water. Cool 
before using. Use freshly gathered eggs and do not wash them before 
packing, unless necessary. A few may be put in the preserving fluid 
every day, as gathered. 

COOKING EGGS 

Experiment II. Fill a small saucepan half full of boiling water, place 
a small portion of egg-white in it, and boil for two minutes. 

Experiment III. Into a like saucepan of boiling water put an equal 
quantity of egg-white. Let it stand for five minutes. 

Note the condition of the eggs in each experiment. 

Albumin begins to coagulate (harden) at 160° F. From 
160° to 180° F. seems to be the best temperature for cooking 
eggs. Test the temperature of the water used. 

*Soft Cooked Eggs 

2% qts. boiling water y^, c. cold water 

6 eggs 2 tsp. melted butter 

salt to taste 
(Allow an additional cup of water for each egg added) 

Test the eggs for freshness. If the eggs are very cold, they should be 
covered with warm water for five minutes before cooking. Place the eggs 
in a deep saucepan. Add the cold water to the boiling water and pour 
it over the eggs. Cover closely and let stand for five minutes. Take out the 
eggs, wipe and break. Hold the egg low horizontally over the cup or a slice 
of toast and strike across the center sharply with the blade of a knife, 
being careful not to drop bits of shell into the Q,gg. Pull it open gently and 
let the contents slide into the cup or on to the toast. Add salt and butter, 
and serve immediately. Soft eggs are very unpalatable when cold. 

To heat the cup, fill with hot water when the ^gg is put in water to 
cook. 

Water Toast. Put a cup of boiling water into a small saucepan. Place 
it over the fire and add one-half teaspoonful of salt. Take a slice of toast 
on a fork and dip it into the water, removing immediately. Place it on a 
hot plate. Open the egg on it and add butter and salt. Serve at once. 

* Poached Egg (Class Recipe, 1 Egg for Each Pupil) 

Brealcing Eggs. Strike the egg sharply with the blade of a knife. Hold 
egg near the dish, pull the shell apart, and let the contents slip out. 

Only fresh eggs can be poached successfully. Put a small buttered 



EGGS 13;!^ 

muflan ring into a saucepan that has been buttered, and cover with boiling 
water to which has been added one-fourth teaspoonful of salt to each cup of 
water. Break an egg into a saucer and slip it into the ring. (With skill 
the egg can be broken directly into the ring.) Cover the saucepan and 
put it in a warm place. If placed on a gas range, turn off the gas and 
leave it on a warm burner. The water must be deep enough to cover the 
egg. Let stand until the yolk is covered with a white film and the white 
is firm — from five to seven minutes will be required. Lift the egg and ring 
with a perforated skimmer, drain, and slip on to a round of buttered toast, 
and remove ring, or serve in a warm cup. Sprinkle with salt, pour melted 
butter over it, and serve. If pepper is used put it on the yolk only. Note 
the consistency of the yolk; compare with the white. 

Egg Poached in Cups. Put a cup into a deep saucepan and cover with 
water prepared as directed above. Drop an egg gently into the cup, cover 
the saucepan, and let stand for five minutes or until the egg is jelly-like. 
Lift the cup and turn the egg gently on to a skimmer. Drain, and serve on 
toast or in the cup. 

Separating Whites from Yolks. Break the egg over a bowl, 
turn the small end down, and pull the shell apart, slipping the 
yolk from one half of the shell to the other once or twice, so that 
the white will drop into the bowl. If any of the yolk is mixed 
with the white, the white will not beat well on account of the 
fat present. 

Beating, Stirring, and Cutting and Folding Eggs. Three 
different methods of preparation of eggs are used for various 
recipes: beating, stirring, and cutting and folding. 

Beating. Eggs are beaten to incorporate air. The yolks are 
beaten in a bowl, with a spoon or fork, or a dover egg beater. 
The whites are beaten on a flat dish or a platter, and are lifted 
so as to beat in as much air as possible. Use a whisk Qgg beater. 
Eggs are beaten stiff when, if cut by a knife, the cut does not 
close, and are beaten dry when bits of the egg fly off the beater. 
After eggs are beaten do not stir them, as the air will be forced 
out. 

Eggs are beaten slightly to mix them as in French omelet, 
cup custard, and salad dressing. 

Stirring. Eggs are stirred to mix them with other ingre- 
dients. In stirring move the spoon in a circle. 



132 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



Cutting and Folding. This is the method by which sugar, 
flour, or other ingredients are added to beaten eggs. Sprinkle 
the substance to be added over the beaten eggs, then cut through 
with the edge of the spoon and turn the mass over. Repeat 
until the ingredients are well mixed. 

Table for Custards 



KIND 


EGGS 


MILK 


SUGAR 


SALT 


FLAVORING 


Firm Custard 
*Cup Custard 

Soft Custard 


4 to 6 

1 

6 egg yolks or 
3 whole eggs 


Iqt. 
% c. 

4 c. 


Vn c. or more 
2 tbsp. 

/•2 ^' 


1/4 tsp. 


1 tsp. 
Grating of 

nutmeg 
Vz tsp. 



Custards — General Proportions. From four to six eggs to 
one quart of milk, or one to one and one-half eggs to each cup 
of milk are required, as fewer than this will not give a firm 
custard. This may be varied by using the yolks, reserving the 
whites for a meringue. Custard made in this way, however, will 
not be so firm, even if double the number of yolks are used. 
Why? Cornstarch may be used instead of a part of the eggs. 
Allow one tablespoonful of cornstarch for each egg omitted. 
How does this affect the food value of the custard? 

A firm custard made with four eggs to one quart of milk 
should be served from the dish in which it is cooked. When 
six eggs are used, it may be turned from the mold when cool 
or partially cool. A firm custard may be baked or steamed. 

A soft custard is stirred constantly while cooking and is 
cooked over hot water. 



* Cup Custard with Meringue 

See Table for proportions. One egg makes two small custards. 

Scald the milk. (See Cocoa, page 81.) Break the eggs, separating 
the yolk from the whites. Put half the white with the yolk and beat 
slightly — that is, just enough to mix. Add the sugar and salt, and then 
the scalded milk slowly. Then add a grating of nutmeg or a tiny bit of 
orange peel. Pour into cups and set them into a pan of hot water. Bake 



EGGS 133 

in a moderate oven until a knife inserted in the custard comes out clear. 
Do not let the water in the pan boil. Why? Cover with a meringue made 
of half of the egg-white. See directions below. 

Meringue for Custards, Puddings, and Pies. Use one or two tablespoon- 
fuls of powdered sugar for each egg-white. Chill the white, beat very stiff, 
then beat in sugar and flavoring. Spread or heap on the top of the custard 
or other dish, when cool. Place in a moderate oven and leave until a 
delicate brown color is secured. (About ten minutes will be needed.) 
Overcooked meringues shrink and become tough, if undercooked, the egg 
at the bottom liquefies. Set custards in a pan of cold water before 
returning them to the oven or they may be overcooked. 

* Light Omelet (Class Recipe) 

Use a very small sheet-steel pan, kejDt especially for the purpose. 
1 egg \ tbsp. water 

^ tsp. white pepper Vs tsp. salt 

1 tsp. butter 

Beat the yolk until thick and lemon colored. Beat the white until stiff 
and dry. Add water, salt, and pepper. Cut and fold in the whites. Heat 
the pan, put in the butter, and turn the pan so as to coat the bottom with 
butter. Pour in the omelet and spread and smooth it carefully. Cook 
over a very moderate fire until it is nicely puffed and is a delicate brown 
on the bottom. Place the pan on the center of the grate of a hot oven for 
a moment, to cook the omelet on the top. Test by touching with a knife or 
spatula. If it sticks, it is not done. When it is done, cut and fold, and 
turn on a warm platter. Have everything ready for e-erving the meal 
before making the omelet. 

To Cut and Fold an Omelet. Take the handle of the pan in the left 
hand and, with a kitchen knife, cut a half inch gash into each side of the 
omelet near the center of the pan and at right angles to the handle. Tilt 
the pan forward until it is nearly vertical. Lift the upper side of the 
omelet and fold over very gently, so as not to break it. When folded turn 
on a hot platter and serve immediately. 

French Omelet 

(The French Omelet is one of the most difficult of egg dishes to cook.) 
Use the quantities given above. Beat white and yolk together with a 
fork, just enough to mix them, about twelve strokes. Add the water and 
seasoning. Then proceed as for light omelet. Lift the edges with a spatula 
so that the uncooked portion may come next to the pan. When the whole is 
creamy, but not too firm, increase the heat so as to brown the bottom 
nicely. Fold and serve. 



3^34 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Vegetable or Meat Omelet 

Fold into a four-egg omelet from one-fourth to one-half cup of minced 
ham, or chopped cooked vegetables, such as asparagus tips, peas, spinach, etc. 

* Hard Cooked Eggs 

Put the eggs into a large saucepan of boiling water, cover closely, and 
keep for one-half or three-quarters of an hour on the back of the range 
where it cannot boil; then drop the eggs into cold water to cool. Eggs 
cooked too long or at too high a temperature turn black about the yolk, 
because the sulphur is precipitated. 

USING LEFT-OVEE EGGS 

Be careful to cook no more eggs than are needed, as they are 
not palatable when cold. Hard cooked eggs may be used at the 
next meal if kept very cold. Soft cooked eggs, if still unbroken, 
may be put into boiling water and cooked hard, then used for 
garnishing vegetables or salads, served in white sauce, or as 
Goldenrod or Stuffed Eggs. 

Uncooked Whites. Egg-whites may be utilized for clearing 
soup or coffee, for white cakes and meringues, in puffed potatoes, 
etc. A meringue (See page 355) may be spread on thin crackers 
and cooked to a delicate brown in a moderate oven, then served 
warm or cold for dessert. If put in a cool place the whites will 
keep for several days. 

Uncooked Yolks. The yolks may be covered with cold water 
and kept in the ice-box for twenty-four hours. Use for sauces, 
salad dressings, custards, bread, and cakes, or for scrambled 
eggs, adding one white to four yolks; or they may be dropped 
into boiling water, and when hard, may be mashed, seasoned, and 
used for sandwiches. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What is the principal food element in eggs? What element is lacking? 
What is the caloric value of eggs per pound? How many of the size you use 
are required to weigh a pound? What is the caloric value of a pound of 
beef? Compare the weight of a serving of beef and one of eggs. The 
cost and food value. When beef round is twenty-two cents per pound, at 



EGGS 135 

wliat price per dozen could you afford to substitute eggs? Write a break- 
fast or luncheon menu containing eggs. Is meat needed? Write a dinner 
menu containing little or no meat, using a dessert with enough eggs to 
make a balanced meal. Compare the cost and food value of eggs and meat 
for a meal for your family. 

How does the white of the fresh egg differ from that of an old one? 
Why are fresh eggs required for poaching? What effect has the diet of the 
hen on the color of the yolk? 

Tell how to select eggs. Give a test for freshness. Why is an old egg 
light? What does Experiment I show? Why do eggs spoil? What could 
poultry keepers do toward keeping eggs in good condition? Give a reliable 
method for preserving eggs. 

How does the method of cooking affect the digestibility? What is the 
temperature for cooking eggs? How can a temperature below the boiling 
point be secured for eggs cooked in water? For custards? 

Describe the process of scalding milk. Why is the double boiler used? 
When are eggs slightly beaten? What is the purpose of beating them? 
What is the object of beating them stiff? Describe the method of cutting 
and folding. Why are the custards placed in a pan of warm water? 
Arrange a plan by which you could steam your custard. 

How many eggs will be required for a custard which uses one quart of 
milk? (See Custards.) Write a recipe for cup or soft custard requiring 
one quart of milk. Omit one-half the eggs and use cornstarch. How may 
cornstarch be added so that it will not lump? (See Experiment IV, page 
117, and White Sauce.) How long must the milk and cornstarch be cooked 
before it is mixed with the egg? (See Cornstarch Pudding, page 252.) 
Compare the food value of this custard with that where the whole number 
of eggs is used. Which costs more? 

Why does an overcooked omelet shrink? Why do omelets jiuff or rise? 
Why are they served immediately and on a hot platter? Write a recipe for 
omelet using four eggs. (Never try to cook more than this quantity at 
once.) 

Describe the appearance of cold omelet. Mention several ways of using 
left-over eggs ; eggs cooked in the shell ; uncooked whites ; yolks. 

Supi>lementary Eccipes 

Soft Custard (p. 363) Stuffed Eggs (p. 364) 

Scrambled Eggs (p. 364) Goldenrod Eggs (p. 364) 

Shirred Eggs (p. 364) . Fried Eggs (p. 364) 



CHAPTER IX 

MILK 
COMPOSITION OF MILK AND MILK PKODUCTS 

CAKBO- CALultlKS 

WATER PltOTElN TAT HIDKATE ASH I'ER LB. 

Milk 87. 3.3 4. 5. .7 325 

Skimmed milk 90.5 3.4 .3 5.1 .7 170 

Cream 74. 2.5 18.5 4.5 .5 910 

Butter 11. 1. 85 3. 3605 

Buttermilk 91. 3. .5 4.8 .7 165 

Cheese, full creara 34.2 25.9 33.7 2.4 3.8 1950 

Cheese, cottage 72. 20.9 1. 4.3 1.8 510 

Condensed milk, tweetened. 26.9 8.8 8.3 54.1 1.9 1520 

Cond. milk, unsweetened, ) 

..^ .;,n '/ > 68.2 . 9.6 9.3 11.2 1.7 780 

or * * Evaporated Cream 'I 

Milk weighs a little more than water. One quart weighs two pounds 
two and one-half ounces. 

Milk is one of the most important protein foods. It should 
be very clean as it is used by many people with poor digestion 
and if it is not pure it may do great harm. Before opening a 
bottle of milk, wash the bottle and top carefully and wipe dry. 
What is the composition of milk ? 

Color. Good milk is yellowish white and free from specks 
or streaks. The milk of some breeds of dairy cows looks whiter 
than that of others. Cows fed on dry feed do not give very 
yellow milk. Bluish milk is poor. There should be no sed!me: t 
at the bottom after milk stands. Strain milk through cheese- 
cloth and see if specks of blood, or pus, or yellowisli specks are 
found; if so, the milk is from cows with diseased udders; 
distinguish carefully between curdy specks and fat globules. 
Pure rich milk clings to the. glass. 

136 



MILK 137 

The Odor of Milk. Fresh clean milk is pleasantly sweet, 
with no trace of mustiness. Unpleasant odors may be caused 
by dirt in the milk or by the food of the cow. 

The Taste. Fresh milk is slightly sweet with no strong 
taste. The flavor is spoiled by the same conditions that cause 
unpleasant odors. 

Why Milk Sours. Milk sours because bacteria find their 
way into it from the dust, or from unclean vessels, and change 
the sugar to an acid. When sufficient acid is formed, the casein 
(sometimes called ' ' curd") is curdled or made solid. The cleaner 
the milk, the fewer the bacteria. Milk produced under the best 
conditions may have as low a bacterial count as eight thousand 
per cubic centimeter (about 15 drops). Ordinary market milk 
has fifty thousand per cubic centimeter. Other bacteria than 
those that cause souring are found in dirty milk in great n\uu- 
bers. Such milk may decompose or spoil before it sours. 

A poison known as ptomaine is sometimes found in milk, 
cream, buttermilk, and ice cream made from old or unclean milk 
and cream ; it is very dangerous, and often causes violent illness 
or even death. 

Keeping Milk. The two things to remember in keeping 
milk are : first, it must be kept clean so that few bacteria may 
enter it; second, it must be cooled quickly and kept cool, to 
prevent those bacteria that enter from multiplying rapidly. 
i\Iilk may be cooled in ice water as soon as it is drawn from the 
cow, then kept in a very cool place. If you have no ice-box, 
wrap the milk vessel in a wet cloth. Tin and poorly glaztd 
earthenware and vessels with seams or cracks should not be used 
for keeping milk ; glass or semi-porcelain is best. Do not let 
milk freeze, and never mix warm milk with that which has been 
cooled. 

MILK AS A CARRIER OF DISEASE 

Milk contains the food upon which bacteria thrive, and as it 
is commonly taken raw we must guard our supply carefully. 
Cows sometimes have tuberculosis and the germs may be carried 



138 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

in their milk. Not only the cows, but all workers in dairies, 
should be tested for tuberculosis. The germs of typhoid fever, 
diphtheria, scarlet fever, and some bowel diseases of young chil- 
dren may be carried in milk, if it is handled by persons who have 
the disease or who have been in contact with it. Never carry a 
milk bottle into a sick room. If there are any contagious dis- 
eases in the house, have milk bottles sterilized, that is, heated, 
so that all the germs are destroyed, before returning them to 
the dairyman. If there is danger of disease, or if one wishes 
to keep milk sweet for several days, it may be sterilized. Pas- 
teurization, or the heating of milk to a temperature of 145-160° 
F., is adopted for the purpose of keeping it sweet. This process 
destroys the germs of some diseases, but can not be absolutely 
depended on to kill all germs. Milk should not be kept more 
than thirty-six hours after Pasteurization. 

Sterilized Milk 

Heat the milk to 212° F. and keep boiling for one hour. For long 
keeping, boil for three successive days, and seal. Milk so heated, however, 
is difficult to digest. 

Pasteurized Milk 

1. Fill both parts of the double boiler with water. The depth of the 
inner compartment should be such that when the bottles are placed therein 
the height of the water will be slightly above the height of the milk in the 
bottles. 

2. Place the double boiler on the stove and put the bottles containing 
the milk to be Pasteurized in the water of the inner compartment. The tojDs 
of the bottles should be tightly stoppered with sterile non-absorbent cotton. 

3. Place a dairy thermometer in the water. When the temperature 
reaches 150° F. (or when fine bubbles appear in the milk), remove the double 
boiler to the rear of the stove and allow it to stand covered for thirty or 
forty minutes. 

4. The milk must be chilled quickly. Set the bottles in a large 
dish pan or bread pan containing cold water. A single bottle can best be 
quickly chilled by holding the side of the bottle under running water 
at such an angle that the milk is not spilled or the cotton plug allowed to 
become wet. 

5. As soon as the milk is cold it should be set in the ice compartment 
of the ice-box until needed. All Pasteurized milk more than twenty-four 
hours old should be thrown away. 



MILK 139 

COMPOSITION OF MILK 

Milk is a protein or building food, although it contains fat 
and carbohydrate in the form of sugar. The protein of milk is 
in the form of casein, with a little albumin. The next most 
important substance is fat. The fat varies with the breed of the 
cows, being from 3% to 6%. What breeds of cows give very 
rich milk? 

There is about 5% carbohydrate in milk in the form of 
lactose (or milk sugar). The minerals in milk are very impor- 
tant; they furnish bone and muscle. They are phosphate of 
lime, phosphate of potash, and a trace of iron and citric acid, 
which may be considered with the minerals. Water forms about 
87% of milk. Cow's milk is not a perfect food, although it is 
very valuable in the diet. 

By a series of experiments milk may be separated into its 
various parts. 

Experiment 1. Observe a bottle of milk kept in a cool place over night; 
note the dejjth of the cream. In good milk from one-eighth to one-third 
is cream. 

Experiment II. Keep a half pint of thick cream in a cool place for 
twenty-four hours. Cool to 55° F. and beat with a fork in a bowl. Churn 
in a small glass churn, or shake in a preserve jar until the butter separates. 
The grains should be about the size of grains of corn. Press gently to re- 
move the buttermilk. Drain and wash the butter in clean cold water. 
Sprinkle on one-half teaspoonful of salt and work it in. Handle butter 
very lightly so as not to spoil the grain or texture. Weigh the butter. 
How much did it cost? What is the composition of the buttermilk? 

If preferred, a quart of rich milk may be put into a bowl in a cool 
place until the cream rises and is quite thick. It may be skimmed and 
churned as directed above. Perfectly sweet separator cream may be 
churned, but the butter lacks flavor. Most persons prefer butter from well 
ripened sour cream. 

Experiment III. Scald a half cup of milk. Note the skin that forms 
on the top of the milk ; this is chiefly albumin. The protein of milk is hard- 
ened by a high temperature; for this reason it is heated over hot water. 
Milk scorches easily because of the fine particles of casein in it, and heating 
it over hot water prevents this. 

Experiment IV. Put a quart of milk into a bowl and keep it in a 
moderately cool place until it clabbers or coagulates; turn into a thin 



140 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

cloth bag and hang up to drain. After several hours place in a pan and 
put a weight on it; when firm remove from the bag and serve with cream 
and sugar. Note the consistency. What food elements have been lost in its 
preparation? 

Experiment V. The water that drains from clabber is known as whey. 
It contains a little of the protein and some of the sugar of milk. Boil a 
portion of the whey. Let stand for a few moments. What can you say 
of the composition of the skin which forms? 

Experiment VI. To a cup of fresh lukewarm milk add one-fourth of 
a rennet tablet, dissolved in one tablespoonful of lukewarm water. Let 
stand until it becomes firm ; then compare with the curd in Experiment IV. 

Experiment VII. Warm one cup of sweet skimmed milk to about 110° 
F. Add vinegar, a drop at a time, stirring constantly until it curdles. 
Let stand until the curd settles. Then drain off the liquid, filter, and boil. 
Skim it, let settle, strain through muslin ; then filter the boiled liquid, and 
evaporate to dryness in a tiny pan. What is the product? Exhibit com- 
mercial milk sugar to classes. 

THE DIGESTION OF MILK 

The first step in the digestion of mill^ takes place in the 
stomach. It is then clotted or changed to curd by the action of 
rennet, a digestive ferment. (See page 49.) Sip milk slowly; 
the liquid of the mouth dilutes the milk and makes the curd 
less dense. Buttermilk and clabber are easier to digest than 
fresh milk, as the curd is finely divided. Very rich milk is 
not as digestible as that only moderately rich. Why? Owing 
to the ease with which milk is digested, it is very valuable 
in sickness, although in some persons it causes constipation. 
As milk does not form the poisons that other animal proteins do 
in the process of digestion, it is very useful when there is a 
tendency to rheumatism, gout, kidney diseases, and colds. 

Milk should not be used with acid foods, such as fruits and 
fruit juices, as a dense clot forms that is not easy to digest. 
Only rich cream should be served with peaches or berries. Why ? 

THE COST AND FOOD VALUE COMPARED 

If we consider the actual nutrients contained, milk even at 
ten cents a quart is not an expensive food. A quai't of milk 
equals in food value three-fourths of a pound of meat, eight 




MILK 141 

eggs, or six ounces of bread. A five cent loaf of bread weighs 
from twelve and one-half to seventeen ounces. Bread, therefore, 
is a cheaper food than milk, but lacks protein. A glass of milk 
equals three ounces of lean beef or two eggs. With beef at 
eighteen cents a pound and eggs at thirty cents a dozen, milk at 
ten cents a quart is the cheapest food. A family of five can 
afford to use three quarts of milk each day. 

If good milk is purchased at night the cream may be used 
for breakfast, leaving an abundance of skim milk of good qual- 
ity for household use. If a quart of milk, 
which contains 4:% of fat, is kept cool for eight 
hours or over night, the upper six ounces will 
form a 16 ^/r cream; the upper eleven ounces a 
10% cream. The cream may be removed with 

a milk dipper or by syphon as shown in the 

figure, or it may be poured off. A pint of removing cream 
cream weighs sixteen ounces and costs the same with syphon 
as two quarts of milk, which would furnish twelve ounces of 
16% cream or twenty-two ounces of 11% cream, and would 
leave skim milk for cooking purposes. 

What is the fat content of your cream? What is the fat content of the 
milk you buy? What is the price of milk and cream in your market? Which 
will give you the more food value, — two quarts of milk at ten cents a quart 
or a pint of cream at twenty cents? Which would be of more value in your 
housekeeping? 

Remember that milk is a food, not a drink. It takes the 
place of meat, beans, and eggs. It combines well with eggs, and 
if a moderate quantity of each is used, they will together equal a 
ration of meat or beans. It is particularly desirable for children 
up to twelve years of age, as it is quite readily assimilated. For 
supper or breakfast, mush and milk costs no more than bread 
and jam or molasses and forms a ration more in accord with 
the child's needs. 

Skim Milk. For such foods as breads and cream soups, 
skim milk may be used to increase the amount of protein 



142 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

in the diet. Sour milk may be used for making bread and 
cottage cheese. 

Condensed and Evaporated Milk. This is canned milk 
from which a portion of the water has been removed. (Note 
difference in amount of water as compared with fresh milk.) 
Condensed milk ordinarily means milk to which cane sugar has 
been added. (See Table, page 136.) Such milk may be sub- 
stituted for fresh milk in many cases, but the flavor is not that 
of the fresh article. 

Evaporated Cream. This is usually condensed milk with no 
added sugar, and resembles cream only in appearance. 

QUESTIONS AND PKOBLEMS 

Give tests for good milk. What are your state or city laws regarding 
cleanliness in dairies? Is there any inspection or test for tubercular or 
other diseased animals'? Visit the dairy from which your milk supply 
comes. Is your milk supply clean enough to be used without Pasteurization? 
What diseases may be carried in milk? Is Pasteurization a safe remedy for 
all disease germs? Why does milk sour? How can souring be delayed? 
What conditions are favorable to the growth and spread of bacteria? (See 
Yeast, page 210.) Should cows be fed hay while being milked? How could 
the dust be lessened in dairy barns and pens? What is the bacteriological 
count for market milk in your town? What is meant by this term? If 
certified milk is sold, what is the difference between the bacteria permissible 
in it and in ordinary milk? Tell how we can keep milk. How can you air 
milk quickly so that it will not be exposed to dust? Give directions for 
washing milk vessels. What is the cost of milk in your home? Give the 
standards for milk and cream in your state. What foods do we find in 
milk? Why is milk scalded over hot water? Why not serve a pudding of 
milk and eggs after a meal with much meat? How may skim milk be 
utilized? What is its food value? 



CHAPTER X 

MILK PRODUCTS— CREAM— BUTTER— CHEESE 

CREAM 

Like milk, cream must be free from strong tastes or odors. 

Gravity Cream. Cream obtained by letting the milk stand 
until the cream rises is known as gravity cream. (See Experi- 
ment I, page 139.) 

Separator Cream. Centrifugal or separator cream is ob- 
tained by passing milk through a machine that turns the milk so 
rapidly that the fat is separated from the milk. Most cream 
sold in cities and towns is centrifugal cream. 

Cream for Whipping. Use cream twenty-four hours old, if 
obtainable, as it is best for whipping. Fresh cream can be 
whipped, however, if rich and very cold. Pasteurized cream, if 
to be whipped, must be very thoroughly chilled. Cream held for 
two hours at a temperature of 35° to 45° F. should whip in sixty 
seconds. If cream is too warm it will become oily and turn to 
butter when whipped. Whipped cream will not keep as well as 
plain cream. (For Whipped Cream, see page 82.) What per 
cent of butter fat is in your cream? 

BUTTER 

Good butter must be sweet, firm, and of good grain; not 
oily. It must neither be streaked nor have specks of curd. It 
must not contain an excess of salt or water. What is the fat 
content of butter in your state? 

CHEESE 

In this country cheese is made from the milk of cows, but 
abroad the milk of sheep and goats is also used. Cheese is made 

143 



144 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

from the curd of milk. The curd is produced by adding rennet 
(a powder made from the lining of the calf's stomach) to the 
milk, or by allowing the milk to sour and curdle. (See Experi- 
ments IV and VI, pages 139, 140.) Most cheeses are made of the 
curd produced by rennet, but some Dutch and German cheeses are 
made from the sour milk. After the curd is pressed to remove 
the whey, salt and other flavoring materials are added and it is 
ripened, or stored until it has undergone certain changes in 
flavor due to bacterial growth. (What are bacteria?) The 
bacteria are probably in the dust of the air of the room where 
the cheese is made. Some cheese of peculiar flavor, such as 
Roquefort, can be made only in certain localities. 

Cheeses are usually classified as cream, whole milk, and 
skim milk cheese. The cheese sold as cream cheese is often a 
whole milk cheese. Real cream cheese is made of whole milk to 
which a certain per cent of cream has been added. 

Composition of Cheese. (See Milk.) Cheese is about % 
water, % fat, and % protein. A pound of cheese is nearly three 
times as nourishing as a pound of meat. Compare the cost. It 
is not as digestible as meat, owing probably to its density and 
to the quantity of fat it contains. 

Selecting Cheese. Choose clean cheese of good odor. Ex- 
amine it carefully to see that it is free from insects. Keep cheese 
in a cool dry place where flies and mice cannot reach it. It is 
very apt to mold if kept in a damp place. 

* Junket 

(Eeview Experiment VI, page 140) 

2 c. milk 2 tbsp. sugar 

%> tsp. vanilla 2 tsp. liquid rennet or 

2 tsp. lukewarm water % a junket tablet 

Heat the milk until it is lukewarm in a double boiler. Dissolve the sugar 
in it, and add flavoring, and rennet, soaked in warm water. Turn into a 
glass dish and leave it in a warm place (about 70° F.) until firm. Serve with 
cream. Flavor with nutmeg or cinnamon if preferred instead of vanilla. 
What is rennet? 



MILK PRODUCTS 145 

Cooking Cheese. Cheese is made more digestible by being 
fiiiel}^ divided and lightly cooked with other substances. 

Experiment I. Heat a tiny piece of cheese very hot in a saucepan 
directly over the fire, without letting it burn. Melt a like piece in a double 
boiler. Kemove the boiler from the hot water as soon as the cheese is 
melted. Cool and note difference in the condition of the two pieces. Which 
do you consider the more digestible? Why? The protein in cheese is really 
the casein and albumin of milk, and it is toughened by high temperatures. 
It also contains fat which should not bo overheated. 

* Cream Cheese on Toast (Class Recipe Vi) 

1 tbsp. flour % c, scalded milk 

14 c. cold milk 1 tsp. butter 

1 c. chopped or grated cheese Vs tsp. salt 

a spk. cayenne or paprika 1 egg 

Add the cold milk gradually to the flour, rubbing it to a smooth paste. 
Stir in the scalded milk gradually; then return to the double boiler and 
cook for ten minutes, stirring all the time until it thickens. Add the cheese 
and stir until it is melted. Add salt, pepper, the egg, slightly beaten, and 
the butter. Stir briskly for about one minute or until the egg thickens a 
little. Then pour it over a round or oblong of toasted bread or crackers. 
Serve immediately. Do not let the water in the douhle boiler hoil after the 
cheese is added. Why? 

Cheese with White Sauce 

Proceed as in recipe above, using two tablespoonfuls of flour in sauce 
and omitting the egg. 

Toasted Cheese on Crackers 

Sprinkle a thin layer of grated cheese over thin crackers, dust with 
salt and cayenne pepper. Lay on a baking sheet, and place in a hot oven 
until the cheese is melted. Serve immediately. 

QUESTIONS AND PKOBLEMS 

What is cream? Give directions for whipping ereara. To what tem- 
perature should it be brought for whipping quickly? What is the proper 
temperature for churning? (See Experiment II, page 139.) Why is butter 
sometimes oily? When cream froths instead of turning into butter on 
being churned, what is the cause? (See Whipped Cream, page 82.) 



146 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



What is the cheese standard in your state? (See Pure Food Laws.) 
What are the principal food elements in cheese? How does cheese compare 
with meat in food value? What is the price of cream cheese in your mar- 
ket? What skim milk cheese is offered by your grocer? Compare the 
price with that of full cream cheese. Which is richer in protein? What 
food elements have been lost in skim milk cheese ? Make a list of the varieties 
of cheese in your market. Give price and state whether domestic or im- 
ported. Why should cheese be only slightly cooked? Describe the taste and 
appearance of overcooked cheese. If macaroni and cheese are cooked to- 
gether, when is the cheese added? Why? Make a luncheon menu, using a 
cheese dish in place of meat. 

Supplemeritary Becipes 



* Churning (p. 351) 
Buttermilk (p. 352) 
Cottage Cheese (p. 356) 
Frothy Whipped Cream (p. 356) 



Cheese Souffle (p. 357) 
Welsh Rarebit (p. 357) 
Cheese Bread (p. 357) 



CHAPTER XI 

MEAT 

COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PARTS OF MEAT AND FISH* 

ItEFUSK 

AS PUU- CALOUIES 

CHASED ARTICLE CLASS WATEK rUOTEIX FAT ASH I'EU POUND 

12.7 Porterhouse steak. Good 60. 19.5 19.5 1. 1270 

8.5 Eoiind of beef Average 67.8 20.9 10.6 1.1 835 

16..3 Chuck ribs Medium fat 62.7 18.5 18. 1. 1105 

16.5 Loin of veal Medium fat 69. 19.9 10.8 1.2 825 

18.4 Mutton leg Medium fat 62.8 18.5 18. 1. 1105 

Gelatin 13.6 84.2 .1 2.1 1705 

23.5 Pork, loin chop... Good 60.3 20.3 19. 1. 1180 

13.6 Ham, smoked.. .. .Medium fat 40.3 16.3 38.8 4.8 1940 
7.7 Bacon 

(no wrapper).. Medium fat 18.8 9.9 67.4 4.4 3030 

25.9 Fowl Medium fat 63.7 19.3 16.3 1.1 1045 

41.6 Broilers Medium fat 74.8 21.5 2.5 1.1 505 

46.1 Red snapper 

(whole) Good 78.5 19.7 1. 11.3 410 

51. Weak fish Good 79.4 17.8 2.4 1.2 430 

55.4 Black bass Good 76.7 20.6 1.7 1.2 455 

44.7 Spanish mackerel. Good 68.1 21.5 9.4 1.5 795 
57. Flounder Good 84.2 14.2 .6 1.3 290 

Oysfers In bulk 88.3 6. 1.3 1.1 230 

Carbohydrates, 3.3 in form of glycogen in liver. 

The term meat includes the flesh of animals used for food. 
In this country the meats in ordinary use are : beef and veal, 
obtained from cattle ; pork, the flesh of the hog ; mutton, ob- 
tained from sheep ; fish ; and poultry, which includes chickens, 
ducks, geese, turkeys, the guinea fowl, and young pigeons, or 

* The figures given arc from Atwater's tables, Government Bulletin No. 28. 

147 



248 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

squabs. Another meat is game, which is the flesh of wild ani- 
mals and fowls, such as venison (the flesh of the deer), the 
rabbit, squirrel, quail, dove, plover, duck, and turkey. 

Our principal meat supply comes from the West and South- 
west, and from Mexico and South America. As the country 
becomes more thickly settled the large cattle ranches are being 
turned into farms. This will eventually make the price of meat 
much higher, nnless the farmers find some way of growing a 
cheaper food for cattle. 

STEUCTURE OF MEAT 

Upon examining a cut of meat, we find that it is made up of 
bone, fat, and lean meat or muscle. Have a shin bone sawed at 
its widest part near the joint. Note where it is spongy, and 
where hard. Note the fat, which in bones is called marrow, and 
also notice the tiny blood vessels. Bones are half water and of 
the other half two-thirds is mineral, chiefly lime, and one-third 
is animal substance known as cartilage. Bones are fastened 
together by thin, tough membranes, known as ligaments. Some 
of the animal tissue in bones is dissolved by heat and moisture. 

By looking closely at some of the coarser cuts of raw meat 

one can distinguish the cord-like fibers. After boiling, these 

long stringy fibers can be torn apart. Under the microscope 

they will be found to be made up of tiny tubes, known as muscle 

fibers. These are of varying lengths, depending on the cut 

and the animal. In the breast of the chicken they are short. 

while in the coarser cuts of beef they are long. (In carving cut 

across the length of the fiber.) The walls of the tubes are 

made of an albuminoid substance. These tubes contain the 

muscle juice, which is water, that has dissolved in it proteins, 

minerals, and the substances which give flavor. When the tubes 

are cut the juice escapes and much valuable material is lost. 

Bundles of the tubes are held together by collagen, a substance 

Avhich yields gelatin upon being boiled. This substance may be 

seen in soup meat that has been gently cooked till tender. 



MEAT 149 

Exercise makes these connective tissues thicker; therefore the 
flesh is tougher in the parts that are much used. 

Why is loin more tender than round? How does the wing of chicken 
compare with that of a bird in tenderness? 

In the connective tissues between the meat fibers there is 
fat. Note the structure and appearance of fat in different cuts 
and animals, the quantity varying according to the animal and 
the part of the body. In chicken breast there is little fat, in the 
leg a greater proportion ; young chickens have less than old, 
while in swimming birds there is a large quantity to give light- 
ness and to keep them warm. Pork has more fat in its fibers 
than beef has. In some animals there is a large quantity of fat 
apart from the flesh ; this is noticeable in pork, beef, and mutton. 

COMPOSITION OF MEAT 

Meats are proteins or tissue building foods, but contain also 
fats, mineral salts, and much water. (Note composition of dif- 
ferent meats in table.) Phosphoric acid and potash are among 
the most valuable of the minerals. 

Gelatin. Gelatin is made from the bones and connective 
tissues. It belongs to the nitrogenous group of foods, but is 
not a tissue builder as are the true proteins. Because of the 
gelatin contained, soup stocks and gravies become firm when 
cooled. 

The Extractives. The juice of meat contains substances 
that give flavor, known as extractives. They are not considered 
nourishing, but stimulate the digestion. Soup meat is tasteless 
because the extractives have been dissolved in the soup. 

USE AND DIGESTIBILITY OF MEAT 

Meat is very important in the diet because it gives building 
material from which we can make new body tissue for growth 
and repair. (Name other foods rich in protein.) Owing to the 
poisons that may be left in the body, however, in the process 
of digestion (See page 53), Ave must not use too much meat. 



150 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Rheumatism and some other diseases are believed to come from 
an excessive use of meat. 

Except when the stomach juices are weakened by disease, 
meat is easily digested, although the coarseness of the meat 
fibers, the amount of fat, and the method of cooking all affect 
the ease with which it is digested. A person with a delicate 
digestion might eat a tender broiled mutton chop from which the 
fat had been removed before cooking and feel no ill effects, while 
stewed mutton from a coarse cut rich in fat might cause acute 
gastric disturbances. Tender breast of chicken could be eaten 
by the invalid but the coarse fibered, strong flavored leg might 
cause much internal trouble. 

Veal is dense in structure, and on account of its softness is 
swallowed before it is thoroughly masticated. For this reason 
it should not be eaten by children and invalids. 

Pork is more difficult of digestion than most other meats 
because of its fat. Bacon fat is easily digested, although very 
salty bacon, and especially that which is treated with chemicals, 
is not digestible. Fish is not so easy to digest as beef, ranking 
with veal and mutton in this respect. 

The liver, kidneys, and heart of animals, even when care- 
fully prepared, are not so easily digested as the cuts from the 
flesh. 

The sweetbread, as it is called, one of the digestive glands, 
is tender and of delicate flavor, but is believed to contain sub- 
stances that are harmful to those of rheumatic tendencies. 
Canned, dried, salt, and smoked meats are not as easy to 
digest as fresh meats. Meat leaves little waste in the intes- 
tines, and so does not stimulate peristaltic movement; for this 
reason we eat with it coarse foods rich in cellulose, such as green 
vegetables. 

THE PEESERVATION OF MEAT 

Meat spoils or decomposes very quickly unless kept at a low 
temperature, dried, salted, treated with preservatives, or canned. 
All of these processes check the growth of bacteria or destroy 
them, 



MEAT 151 

Cold does not destroy bacteria, but retards their growth. 
When the temperature is raised, the bacteria become active and 
the meat spoils quickly. If meat taken from cold storage 
is to be kept for more than a few hours, it must be placed in a 
very cold ice-box. The dish containing meat may be placed 
directly on the ice, and thus cared for the meat will keep a little 
longer than it will in the body of the box. If meat is to be 
kept several days, put it into an eartherf jar which has been 
placed in a bucket of ice and salt. Thoroughly chill it, then 
repack in ice and cover closely. The jar needs repacking morn- 
ing and night. 

Bacteria may be destroyed by drying, a method much used 
for preserving meat in dry countries where ice is not avail- 
able. The jerked or dried beef of the southwest is an example. 
Salt and smoke also destroy bacteria. Salt pork, ham, and 
breakfast bacon are so preserved. 

Chemical preservatives are sometimes used on meat, but meat 
so treated is not healthful. (See the Pure Food Law.) Salt- 
peter, a chemical, is used to deepen the color of meat, but such 
chemicals are injurious. 

Canning is another method of preserving meat, but canned 
meats are not usually made from the choicest animals. They 
are seldom cheaper than fresh meats, and are more difficult to 
digest. 

Care of Meat. Meats must be protected from dust and 
insects. If meat is hung where there are flies, it should be 
placed in a thin cotton bag. Fresh beef may be kept without 
salt for two weeks in cold weather, and even in summer it will 
keep for several days in a good ice-box. What method do you 
use for the preservation of meat in your home? 

Ptomaines. Unless meat is preserved by some of the methods 
given above, it decomposes or spoils very quickly. It is then 
a dangerous food because of the poisons formed. The poisons 
produced in decomposing animal proteins such as meat, milk, 
and eggs are known as ptomaines. They are very deadly, and 
may cause death in a few hours, Even a slight attack leaves 



152 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

the system badly deranged. This poison forms quickly in fish 
and oysters and therefore one should be careful not to eat these 
unless they are fresh. Canned meats are sometimes a source of 
ptomaine poisoning. 

Fresh meat can be easily distinguished from that which is 
even slightly tainted by the odor. Fresh oysters and fish have 
a very different odor from that of stale oysters or fish. It is 
not easy to detect decomposition in cooked meat, so that it is 
well to buy only uncooked meats in hot weather. 

Cool all meats and soups as soon as they are done. Then 
keep them in a cool place. Never leave meats in a fireless 
cooker or in a warm oven after they are done. Do not keep 
cooked meats too long. 

THE PUEE FOOD LAWS REGAEDING MEAT 

The pure food laws prohibit the selling of the flesh of diseased 
animals, and of food that contains dirt or injurious preserva- 
tives. The enforcement of this law depends on the public. 
Do not patronize a dealer who infringes the law. If there were 
a r'gid enforcement of the law, meat could not be transported 
through the streets uncovered, nor could it be exposed to flies, 
as it is in many shops. Cooked meats are often left open to flies 
and dust and are even cut on the uncleaned blocks that have 
been used for raw meats. Is this in accordance Avith the law ? 

A very common infringement of the law is the use of mineral 
preservatives in the form of powder sprinkled on meat. An- 
other infringement is the use of coloring for sausage and othei' 
products, liquid blood being used to give a fresh look to old 
meats, while a brownish coal tar color is sometimes used. 
Sausage is frequently adulterated by the addition of bread 
crumbs, flour, and waste meat products, sucli as gristle. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Study the reports of the Pure Food Coninnssioner and other state food 
regulations, and patronize those shops that are the cleanest and the most 
law abiding. Name some meat and meat products that lend themselves 
easily to adulteration. Carefully inspect your meat shop. Does it fulfill 



MEAT 153 

the conditions of the law? How could it be improved? Write a list of the 
important requirements of a sanitary meat shop. Note provision for ex- 
cluding flies r.nd dust. Note temperature; odors; method of caring for 
cooked meat. Also note cleanliness of those who handle the meat. Does 
your pure food law forbid the sale of meat from tubercular cattle? 

FOOD VALUE AND COST COMPARED 

]\Ieat, as we have seen, is one of the chief sources of protein 
or building materials. What are the other sources of protein? 
In considering the cost of meat compared with its food value the 
available protein is the basis of comparison, although the fat, 
also, is of high food value and must be considered. 

Compare the jier cent of protein of the different meats in the table on 
page 147. Compare the waste. Make a list giving price per pound of the 
cuts commonly used in your household. How do they compare in cost and 
food value? (See Table.) 

SELECTING MEAT 

In selecting meat one must consider: (1) the taste of the 
family with regard to kind and cut; (2) the cost, being sure to 
note carefully the amount of waste, such as bone, rind, and 
tough fiber, unclean pieces that must be discarded, or fat that 
cannot be used; (3) the fuel that will be required in cooking; 
(4) time and labor required for preparation. 

The number of individuals in a family influences one in the 
choice of cuts and the method of cooking. Steaks for broiling 
should be comparatively thick; therefore, if the family is small 
a sirloin steak is too large unless only half of it is cooked at a 
time. A porterhouse, club, or Delmonico steak might be selected, 
for while the long thin end of the last is not available for broil- 
ing it may be utilized for stew or meat pie. A large roast may 
]:•.' used if carefully reheated in various forms. 

In addition to the cut, there are certain standards of quality 
to be observed. The meat from fat animals is of higher food 
value and of better flavor than that from thin animals, as the 
per cent of water is lower. If a cut of meat is excessively fat, 



254 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

there is, of course, a waste, but meat must be from a compara- 
tively fat animal to be of the best quality. A cut from the 
round of the best beef is better than the choicest cuts of 
inferior animals. The flesh of young animals, such as veal and 
lamb, has a smaller per cent of fat than that of the more mature 
animals, so the standard that applies to the latter cannot be used 
for them. 

Good meat is odorless except for a certain fleshy smell, not 
tainted, strong, or musty. Meat must be dry on the surface — 
thick, plump, and firm, but not hard to the touch or coarse in 
fiber ; it should feel like velvet and should be easy to cut with a 
sharp knife. Frozen meat becomes soft and slimy unless care- 
fully thawed and cooked promptly. The bones of old animals 
are white and hard; of young ones, reddish and soft. Good 
meat should be well marbled with fat; roasts and chops from 
mature animals should have a layer of fat on the outside from 
one-fourth to one-half inch thick. 

Meats vary in color, fat, etc., according to their kind, so 
that in addition to these general rules for selection we must 
know the qualities of each variety. 

Beef. Good beef is a rich bluish red when first cut, but 
grows brighter as it stands, becoming a bright cherry or a pale 
red within a short time after cutting. Very bright red beef may 
have been colored. Very dark, strong, coarse fibered beef with 
yellow fat is usually from old animals, and is not of good qual- 
ity. A layer of straw-colored fat extends over the ribs and loin 
in good meat. The kidney fat should be white and crumbly. 

Veal. Meat from calves is known as veal. Good veal is of 
a dull pink color ; if very young, it is a light, bluish pink. It is 
softer than beef, and decomposes more rapidly, and so cannot 
be kept long. 

Mutton. Mutton is a dull brick red, almost pink, with white 
fat, and like beef should be firm and dry. The bones are white. 
Almost any cut of good mutton is palatable if well cooked, but 
poor mutton cannot be made appetizing by the most skillful 
cooking. 



MEAT 155 

Lamb. The flesh of young sheep is known as lamb, and 
ranges from a light pink to a grayish red. The bones are pink. 

Pork. The pig, the flesh of which is known as pork, is more 
subject to disease than the sheep or the cow, so that its flesh is 
not so desirable for food. If pork is used, it should be carefully 
selected and well cooked. Pork from hogs kept in pastures and 
fed clean food is not apt to be diseased. 

On account of its eating habits the hog is more often a 
carrier of parasites than are the grain eating animals. Some 
hogs are infested with a parasite commonly known as trichina. 
This parasite may enter the human system in raw or underdone 
pork, and may cause great suffering and even death. The only 
certain way of avoiding danger is by cooking all pork products 
thoroughly. Fortunately the per cent of infected hogs in this 
country is small. 

The lean of good pork is pink and the fat is white. The 
meat of the medium-sized hog is more delicate in flavor than 
that of the heavy animal. For home use on the farm, hogs not 
more than one year old should be selected. Pork that is dull in 
color, with yellow spots scattered through the fat and lean is 
diseased. Liver, kidneys, and lungs of hogs are apt to be dis- 
eased. Ham and bacon are prepared from pork. Unsmoked bacon, 
known as salt pork, is much used for seasoning. 

CUTS OF MEAT 

The price of meat depends on the cut. A tender piece, of 
good flavor, that requires only a short time and little care in 
cooking costs more than a tougher piece that requires careful 
preparation and much time. 

The beef is cut into halves lengthwise through the middle of 
the backbone, then into quarters known as fore and hind quar- 
ters ; this division is usually made behind the last rib, but some- 
times the last three ribs are left on the hind quarter. The 
portion in the middle of the animal, forming the loin on the hind 
quarter and the prime ribs on the fore quarter^ furnishes the 
most tender meat. 



156 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 




t 



c 
xn 

b 

P 
O 

5 



u 



MEAT 157 

From the hind quarter the loin furnishes steaks and roasts; 
in young animals and slieep the loin is used for chops. 

The ribs of the fore quarter of beef furnish choice roasts, and 
in mutton, lamb, and veal are used for chops. 

The part of the animal that is u?e(l or exercised the most is the toughest. 
What i)art of the beef would be toughest? (See Figure, page 156.) What 
method of cooking should be used for this cut? (Sec Tables.) Study the 
pictures showing the cuts of meat, and tell why and for what purpose 
certain cuts would be selected. Would you choose beef, mutton, lamb, or 
veal? Why? When is mutton at its best in your market? Veal? Lamb? 

In the tables below, the meats are grouped as quick cooking, 
moderately quick cooking, and slow cooking. 

The first group contains those meats that are adapted to 
broiling, pan broiling, sauteing (incorrectly called frying), or 
cooking in the oven after being dipped in batter or crumbs. 
Such meats must be comparatively tender and thin. 

QUICK COOKING CUTS* 

WEIGHT, HKTAIL PRICE, 

POUNDS CENTS PER LB. 

Porterhouse steak l^/i to 3 to 

Club steak " 1 to 2 to 

Delmonieo steak 1 to 3 to 

Sirloin steak 2 too to 

Round steak 2 to 5 to 

Top round steak 1 V:.. to 3 to 

Chuck steak 2 to 4 to 

Flank steak 1 to 2 to 

Veal steak 1 to 2 to 

Pork steak 1 to IV2 to 

Mutton chops ^L' to % to 

Lamb chops Vr, to Ys to 

Veal chops Vi to % to 

Veal cutlets % to IV2 to 

Pork chops ^/4 to % to 

Salt pork 1 to 3 to 

Fancy breakfast bacon iV to % to 

Medium to fat bacon ^^ to \i to 

♦This table and thoso found on pages 150 and 160 are reproduced by the cour- 
tesy of Prof. Louis D. Hall, of the University of Illinois, and by special arrange- 
ment with Oood Housekeeping. The space under Retail Price may be used 
as a basis of class discussion, or may be filled in by the pupil. 



158 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 






HWD QUAPTCft 


Pou/ilD 




Rump 




t 


Rump 


Round: rump A shank off. 


L 


Round steak, first ct/^. 


3- IS Round steaks. 


14 


Round steak, /as/ cut 


15 


Hnuck/e soup bon« 


16 


Pot roast 


fi/nd ^hanM. 


I7J8 Soup bones 


19 


Hock ^up tx>nz 



Loin 

I Buff' end 3irfoin .if^ak, 

Z Wedge- hone s/r/o/n yffeQk. 

J,4 Round -tone - t» 

5,6 Double -tons 

7 Hip -borte - • 

d Hip-bone Porterhouse <steok, 

3'jyRejuhr •• 

/6-I8 Club ^/eaM-9. 

t Flank st^aM 
£ Stew. 



f^RC QUARTSR 



RfB 




1 


litt & ltu> Rib rpasK 


£. 


3*JtS lOUf " » 


J 


ytii & QLH - • 


4 


6tif • • 


CMucr( 




1 


SJ^ Rib roosf-. 


£-9 


Chuck .^/e<7/c» 


lO-JJ Pot roastx 


/4. 


Clod 


15 


Neck 


Plate. 




1 


^ri.3kef 


2 


Nave} 


S,4- 


Rib endi 


fX>nS SHAtttK 


/ 


J/e*v 


£ 


HnucHI& .soup b'on; 


3-6' 


3ouf> bones. 



DIAGRAM SHOWING CUTS OF BEEF IN DETAIL. 

157-160) 



(SEE TABLES. PAGES 



MEAT 



159 



The second group comprises those meats that may be roasted 
or baked in a short time at a moderately high temperature. 
Like the meats for broiling, such cuts must be fairly tender, but 
are larger in size than those of the first group. 



MODERATELY QUICK COOKING MEATS 



WEIGHT, 
rOUNDS 

Prime ribs of beef (first cut) 4 to 12 

Prime ribs of beef (last cut) 4 to 12 

Shoulder block roaet 4 to 8 

Chuck rib roast 4 to 10 

Beef rump 4 to 12 

Beef tenderloin (fillet) 2 to 6 

Leg of mutton 6 to 9 

Loin of mutton 3 to 6 

Shoulder of mutton 3 to 6 

Leg of lamb 31/0 to 6 

Loin of lamb 2 to 4 

Shoulder of lamb 3 to 4 

Crown roast of lamb 3M> to 6 

Hind quarter (spring lamb) 5 to 8 

Fore quarter (spring lamb) 5 to 8 

Pork loin 2 to 8 

Leg of pork 3 to 12 

Ham (smoked) 3 to 12 

Pork tenderloin 14 to % 

Pork shoulder 2 to 5 

Spare-ribs % to 1 

Veal loin 3 to 6 

Veal leg (fillet) 3 to 12 

Veal shoulder 3 to 8 



liET 
CEN 



AIL PRICE, 
TS I'ER LB. 

to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 



The third group contains those meats which require long slow 
cooking, and is subdivided into boiling meats, stewing meats, and 
soup and broth meats. Meats for boiling must be from rich, thick 
cuts of good flavor. The parts which are much exercised but 
which are not too bony make good boiling pieces. Meats for 



150 'J'HE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

stews must contain fat, fairly tender flesh, and some bone. 
Soup meats need a large proportion of bone. 



SLOW COOKING MEATS 

BOILING MEATS 

WEIGHT, CKXTS PER LB. 

POUNDS RETAIL PKICE, 

Beef horseshoe piece (end round) 4 to 8 to 

Beef shoulder clod 3 to G to 

Kib ends of beef 2 to 6 to 

Cross-ribs of beef 2 to 5 to 

Beef brisket 3 to 8 to 

Corned beef, rump, flank, plate or brisket 2 to 8 to 

Beef tongue, fresh 3 to 5 to 

Beef tongue, smoked 2 to 3 to 

Leg of mutton 6 to 9 to 

Shoulder of mutton 3 to 6 to 

Shoulder of lamb 3 to 4 to 

Leg of pork 3 to 12 to 

Ham, smoked 3 to 12 to 

Pork shoulder, fresh 3 to 8 to 

Pork shoulder, smoked 3 to 8 to 

Pork hocks 11/2 to 2% to 

Backbones and neck bones 2 to 8 to 

STEWING MEATS 

Beef plate 3 to 6 to 

Beef flank 2 to 6 to 

Drop tenderloin 1 to 2 to 

Beef neck 1 to 3 to 

Beef shin 2 to 5 to 

Breast of mutton 2 to 4 to 

Breast of lamb 1 to 2^2 to 

Veal breast 2 to 5 to 

Veal neck 1 to 2 to 

SOUP AND BROTH MEATS 

Shin soup bones 1 to 4 to 

Hind shank soup bones 1 to 5 to 

Knuckle soup bones 3 to 7 to 



WEIGHT. 
POUNDS 


RETAIL 
CENTS 


PRICE, 
PER LB. 


to 




u 




to 


to 


3 




to 


to 


2 




to 


to 


o 




to 


to 


2 




to 


to 


2 




to 


to 


iy2 




to 



MEAT 161 



Oxtail 1 

Beef neck 1 

Beef shoulder clod 1 to 2 1 

Beef round 1 

Mutton shoulder 1 

Mutton neck 1 

Mutton shanks 1 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What are beef, veal, mutton, lamb, pork, ham, and bacon? What meats 
are sold in your markets? Where is your supply obtained.? Is its trans- 
portatien costly? Could your section produce its own meat? 

What food elements are found in meat? What minerals? Of what value 
are they? Are meats expensive? Are they necessary? What foods may 
take their place? Compare the protein content of cooked dried beans, or 
macaroni and cheese, with roast beef, taking for a basis the quantity ordi- 
narily served for a family. Compare broiled loin steak and omelet. Com- 
pare beef and milk bought for the same money. 

What cut of steak would you buy for a small family? How would you 
use the tough part? Find the cost of loin steak, rib roast, round, and stew- 
ing pieces in your market. Compare the food value. Compare the cost of 
beef, mutton, and chicken. What meat would you select for a luncheon for 
your family during the winter? For dinner? What is the cheapest 
palatable cut you could use? Tell how to judge the cuts you selected. 

Study the diagrams and locate the different cuts. What parts are most 
exercised? How would you cook these cuts? Why is the neck tough? How 
would you utilize it? ' 

Make a list of the quick cooking cuts suitable for your family, and tabu- 
late the prices. Make a similar list of slow cooking cuts. Compare prices 
and food value of meats on these lists. 

COOKING MEAT 

Meat is cooked to destroy parasites or bacteria, to develop 
flavor, and in tough meats, to soften the tissues. Is meat hard- 
ened or softened by cooking? The following experiments show 
the effect of water, heat, and salt upon meat. 

Experiment I. Place a small cube of meat (lean beef) in a glass of 
water and let it stand for a quarter of an hour. Should meat be washed 
before being cooked? 



]^g2 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Experiment II. Eepeat Experiment I, first cutting the meat in shreds. 
Compare the results, noting the color. In which experiment was the more 
Juice extracted? How would you apply what you have learned, to soup 
making? 

Experiment III. Boil the water from Experiment II for five minutes. 
Note the result. Why does a scum form? (See Experiment V, page 140.) 
Eead the recipe for beef stock (See page 173) and see if the principles 
brought out in these experiments are applied. 

Experiment IV. Put a small ei.oe of meat into a hot frying pan. Turn 
every ten seconds until well seared. Then lower the heat and turn less fre- 
quently. When done compare with the meat in Experiment V. 

Experiment V. Put a like piece of meat into a cold frying pan and 
heat slowly for three minutes. Then turn and cook for three minutes longer. 
Compare with the meat in Exjieriment IV. 

Experiment VI. Sprinkle a small piece of meat with salt. Let stand 
for five minutes. Note results. 

Experiment VII. (a) Heat meat and water in Experiment I slowly to 
boiling point and boil for three minutes. 

(b) Cover like piece of meat with boiling water and boil for three 
minutes. 

(c) Sear a third piece in an ungreased pan until browned; then proceed 
as in (b). Cut open cubes and compare. Compare the broths. Which 
method is best for stews? 

From these experiments we conclude that less juice is lost 
when the meat is quickly seared, as the protein on the surface of 
the tubes is coagulated and the juices are kept in. Broiled meats 
cooked slowly lose their juices and become tough. For tender 
meats, quick cooking with a prompt searing gives the best results. 
Meat for broiling must not be beaten, as the juice will escape. 
Why? For tough meats the surface must be seared promptly 
to retain the juice as far as possible, then the cooking continued 
at a low temperature, usually in the presence of water to lessen 
shrinkage. The juices are served with the meat. In soup- 
making the object is to draw out the juices, hence the meat i^ 
cut into small pieces and soaked in cold water before cooking. 
Browning meat develops a very appetizing flavor, so a part of 
the soup meat is browned in a little marrow. Soup made alto- 
gether of unbrowned meat has a raw taste. 

Frying is not a good method of cooking meat, since the sur- 



MEAT 163 

face of the meat is so coated with fat that the action of the 
gastric juice on the fibers is restricted. The high temperature 
needed for frying develops irritating acids in the fat, and this 
makes another disturbing factor. A third objection is found in 
tlie overcooked condition of much fried meat. Overcooked meats 
are not palatable, are very indigestible, and have lost a part of 
the food value. Meat may contain parasites, however (for 
example, trichina in pork), or bacteria that may be the germs 
of disease, so it must be cooked enough to destroy these if they 
are present. 

Preparing Meat for Cooking. As soon as meat is brought 
in, the wrapping paper should be removed and unclean pieces 
should be cut off. Then until it is ready to be cooked, leave it 
in a cool, clean place, protected from flies or other insects. When 
ready to cook, wipe with a clean cloth wrung from cold water 
and trim off any tough membranes. If the meat is to be coated 
with flour or crumbs, as in roast or breaded chops, salt just 
before putting on the coating. Have the fire ready and the pan 
hot before salting. Do not salt broiled meats until just ready 
to serve. Why? (See Experiment VI.) 

BROILING MEATS 

The term broilirg means cooking by direct exposure to 
hot coals. This method develops a flavor that cannot be 
secured by any other means. It is probable that the flavor 
of meat broiled over the coals is due in part to the supply of 
oxygen. Broiling is also done under the gas flame. The new 
gas broiling ovens have perforated doors that admit air, and 
meats cooked in them are very palatable. Pan hr oiling is cooking 
in a very hot pan with no fat, or in one slightly greased. 

Tender portions of beef, lamb, and mutton, and young chick- 
ens, squab, quail, doves, small fish, and oysters may be broiled. 
The red meats may be served rare, but white meats must be 
well done. Chicken or fish served rare is very unpalatable. 

To broil meat the fire must be very hot at first, in order to 
sear the surface rapidly and retain the juices. The meat must 



164 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



be turned every ten seconds for the first three minutes, for if it 
is not seared rapidly and turned often much juice is lost. After 
three minutes lower the heat or lift the broiler higher above the 
coals and continue the cooking from three to eight minutes 
longer. A steak one inch thick will require six minutes, if 
to be rare, or nine or ten minutes, if to be well done. A very 
thick steak requires from ten to twelve minutes. The pan or 
broiler must be lightly greased with suet, bacon fat, olive oil, 
or lard, — never with butter. Why not? Do not prick the meat 
with a fork when turning, but lift with a thin broad knife or 




HIP-BONE SIRLOIN STEAK 



REGULAR PORTERHOUSE STEAK 



spatula. Why? Turn the steak on edge to brown fat, or thick 
edge, or bone. Why should broiled meat be turned frequently ? 
If the cooking continues too long, the tissues shrink and 
become hardened and the steam escapes. A broiled steak should 
be brown, and is light and puffy on account of the steam inside. 
As it coels the steam condenses and the steak becomes flat. It 
should be served on a warm platter and the dinner plates, too, 
should be warm. Never salt steak before broiling it. Why? 
(See Experiment VI.) When the steak is done, sprinkle with 
salt and pour over it a little melted butter or any desired sauce ; 
then serve immediately. Other meats may be broiled in the 
same way, the time being varied according to thickness. 

Steak Broiled Over Coals 
Select a small Delmonico steak. Trim off most of the fat and cut off 
the flank end. (How may it be used?) Cook in the broiler over glowing 
coals. (Review Broiling.) Broil as directed, keeping the fat end of the 
steak to the open end of the broiler so that the fat will run over the meat. 
Serve with melted butter and garnish with parsley and slices of lemon. For 



MEAT 



165 



a sick person remove all fat, and grease the broiler very lightly. If a char- 
coal grill is used lay the steak on the hot, well greased bars and turn as 
directed. Eegulate the heat by raising or lowering the grill or by banking 
or lowering the coals-. 



Steak Broiled Under Gas Flame 

Heat the oven and broiler very hot, greasing the broiler well. Lay the 
steak on the broiler and close the door. Proceed as directed for broiling 
over coals, turning frequently at first. The meat may be put in a short 

handled broiler for ease in turn- 
ing, then laid on the rack under 
the gas flame. 

Broiled Lamb Chops (Class 
Recipe — One Chop) 

Broil in pan or broiler. Cook 
from eight to twelve minutes, ac- 
cording to thickness. Kemove most 

DELMONICO, INCORRECTLY CALLED ^^ ^^^^ ^^* ^^'°"^ mutton chops. 
CLUB STEAK Sear over edges and bone well. 




*Pan Broiled Steak (Class Recipe — One Small Piece of Steak) 

Pan broiling is a quick and convenient method of cooking. A sirloin, 
porterhouse, club, T-bone, or Delmonico steak, each about one and one- 
fourth inches thick, is suitable for pan broiling. Inspect the steak and 
note the quality and the distinguishing marks of each cut, noting bones 
and making drawings if time permits. After the steak has been inspected, 
wipe with a cloth wrung out of cold water and remove most of the suet. 
(The narrow or tough end of a steak can be used in stew or meat pie at 
some other lesson.) Mashed potatoes may be prepared to serve with the 
steak. 

Heat a small frying pan very hot. Rub with suet, greasing well. Put 
in the bit of steak, count ten, turn the steak, and continue turning every ten 
seconds, keei)ing it over a hot fire for about three minutes. Then reduce 
the heat and turn less frequently, cooking from six to ten minutes in all. 
Hold the bit of meat between two forks or knives and sear all sides so the 
juice will not escape. Have the serving Dlates slightly warmed and ready 
for the steak, which should be sprinkled lightly with salt and spread with 
a little melted butter. Melt the butter slightly over hot water. Why? 
(See Fats.) In broiling a large steak for home use, drain the fat from the 
2)an frequently. 



166 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



^Hamburg Steak Pan Broiled (Class Recipe — Two Meat Cakes) 

Select a thick roimd steak, about one-sixth as much suet, and a small 
piece of chuck or neck. If the steak is cut too low on the round, it will 
contain many tough fibers which cannot be used. 

Insj^ect the meat, comparing its structure with that of the steak used in 
the previous lesson. What is the most striking difference between them? 
Note the appearance of the bone in round steak. Which contains the 
greater amount of bone, a cut from the upper or the lower round? Compare 
the round and chuck in appearance and available meat. What is the price 
per pound? Cut the meat in strips about one and one-half inches wide. 




ROUND STEAK 

The part above the dotted line is 
known as the "inside" or "top" and is 
much more tender than the lower half. 



ROUND-BONE SIRLOIN STEAK 



discarding the tough fibers. Then grind in a meat chopper, putting in a 
bit of the suet now and then. Use in all about one-sixth as much suet as meat. 
Form a small round cake of the meat one-half an inch thick, and not very 
broad, as large cakes break in turning. Prepare the pans as for pan broiled 
steak, greasing liberally. When the pan is very hot, put in the steak and 
turn as soon as it is slightly firm. Turn frequently with a spatula, and 
cook as directed for pan broiled steak. When it begins to brown, lower the 
heat slightly, and cook for eight or ten minutes. Then place on a hot 
platter that has been rubbed with a slice of onion. Season with salt and 
pepper, garnish with parsley, and serve immediately. Serve steamed or 
boiled rice with the steak and brown gravy or tomato sauce. (See page 126.) 
How many pounds of meat were used? How many cakes were made from 
it? How many cakes would be required for each person for luncheon? How 
much would enough Hamburg steak for your family cost? Compare the 
cost of Hamburg steak with that of the pan broiled steak. 

Breaded Uamhurg Steal-. Proceed as above, then prepare as Breaded 
Mutton C^ops (see page 370), cooking in a hot oven for fifteen minutes. 



MEAT 157 

*Brown Gravy (Class Recipe for Group of Four) 

(Review Experiments IV and VII, using flour.) 

^/2 c. hot water or stock 1 tbsp. fat from roast or soup 

1 tbsp. browned flour 1 tbsp. cold water 

1 small cake of cooked beef 

Cook the cake of beef gently in the water or stock for fifteen minutes. 
Rub the flour to a paste in the cold water and add it to the gravy. Bring 
to the boiling point. Add fat and seasoning, and serve. 

*Broiled Breakfast Bacon 

When the bacon is unwrapped inspect it carefully, remove any mold, and 
put it in a cool, dry place. Before slicing the bacon wipe with a damp 
cloth, then peel off a thin outside layer on the flesh side, and cut into tliin 
slices. Use a sharp, thin bladed knife. The bacon must be cold to cut 
well. When it is all cut, slip the knife next to the skin and remove the slices. 
Look at the ends of the slices. If the fat is very strong and yellow, cut it 
oft'. Fat exposed to the air in a warm place becomes rancid. Why does ran- 
cid fat disturb digestion? (See page 225.) Place the slices of bacon in a 
frying pan over a moderate fire and cook until it is clear and brown, turning 
occasionally. If cooked until crisp, it is not easily digested. The bacon 
may be placed in a fine wire broiler, then over a baking pan, and cooked in 
a hot oven, turning it once and draining it on paper. Plain salt bacon does 
not brown well, but if soaked in milk foi- thiity minutes both color and 
flavor ai'C ini[ roved. 

Pork Chops (Class Recipe) 

Pork requires longer cooking than other meats in order to destroy para- 
sites that may be present. If cooked too rapidly, the outside will be dried 
before the inside is thoroughly heated. 

Pork chops may be pan broiled or cooked in the oven. To cook chops 
in the oven, lay them in a baking pan and put them in a very hot oven for 
ten minutes, then sprinkle with salt. Lower the heat, baste every fifteen 
minutes with a little of the pork fat, and cook for three-quarters of an 
hour from the time that tl.ey were ])ut into the oven. 

ROASTING OR BAKING MEATS 

The term roasting has come to be applied to meats cooked in 
the oven, but in its original meaning it referred to meats hung 
before an open fire and turned frequently. The process we term 



168 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



roasting is really baking. As in broiling, the purpose is to 
retain the juices by a quick searing of the surface. 

Meat for roasting should be fairly tender. The loin, rump, 
and rib roast are preferred in beef, but the brisket may be 
roasted if taken from a choice animal. Good roasts of lamb or 
mutton are the leg, the crown roast, and the saddle (a cut from 
the loin before the carcass is split). Shoulder and ham of pork 
furnish good roasts, while almost any poultry and game may 
be roasted unless very tough. Fish is also roasted or baked. 





STANDING RIB ROAST. BONE MAY 
BE CUT ON DOTTED LINE 



SHOULDER POT ROAST 



Trim off the ragged edges, but do not remove the fat. Select 
a pan that is just big enough for the roast, for if there is much 
exposed pan surface the gravy will have a burned flavor. Put 
a low rack in the pan, dredge (sprinkle) the meat well with flour 
if preferred, or roast without doing this. Place the meat on the 
rack with the largest cut surface up, and if possible with the 
fat where it will run over the meat as it melts. Some bits of 
fat may be detached and laid over the meat. Put the pan into 
a very hot oven (450° F.) for fifteen or twenty minutes; if the 
meat, when first put in, is very cold, half an hour may be needed. 
Then reduce the heat to 340° F. or to what is considered a mod- 
erately hot oven, if there is no thermometer, and cook from fifteen 
to twenty minutes to the pound, according to the shape, weight, 
and tenderness of the cut. After the first half hour, pour a 
little boiling water into the pan, not enough to reach the 
meat, however, and baste the roast every fifteen minutes with 



MEAT 169 

melted fat and water. (Meat is basted by pouring fat over 
it to keep the crust from becoming hard and dry.) The water 
keeps down the temperature of the fat so that it may be used 
for gravy without causing digestive trouble. If the water 
evaporates it must be replenished. Some cooks do not use water, 
but if the gravy is to be eaten it is more digestible when this 
plan is followed. 

The essential points in roasting meat are: first, a prompt 
searing of the surface so that the juices are retained; second, 
frequent basting, for if this is neglected the outer part of the 
meat will be dry and tasteless. Good roast meat should have a 
crisp brown crust, and a tender juicy center, and should be 
brown on the outside edges, shading to a pink in the center. 
Pork and poultry should not be served rare. 

*Roast Beef With Potatoes 

Select a rib or loin roast. Prepare the roast as directed, first dredging 
well with flour, then searing on all sides. Eediice the heat and cook at a 
moderate temperature. 

Pare white or sweet potatoes and boil for ten minutes. Drain and put 
into the pan with the roast forty minutes before the meat is done. Baste 
potatoes well when the roast is basted. Serve with brown gravy. 

Gravy for Roast 

1% c. stock or other liquid 4 tbsp. browned flour 

4 tbsp. fat from roast salt and pepper 

Pour the liquid from the roast into a bowl, removing as much of the fat 
as possible. Measure the liquid and add enough water or stock to make 
one and one-half cups. Put the liquid into a saucepan, and add the flour 
rubbed to a paste with a little of the liquid that has been cooled. Stir until 
it thickens, then add the fat and stir until it reaches the boiling point. Then 
season and serve. 

BOILING MEATS 

Meats for boiling must be of rich flavor and in solid pieces, 
the amount of water used depending on the condition of the 
meat. If salt or smoked meats are to be cooked, a large quan- 
tity of water is used, but for fresh meats less is needed. 



170 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

As in broiling and roasting, a coating is formed over the 
meat, due to the coagulation of the protein by the hot water, 
and the juices are thus well retained. After the first few mo- 
ments of rapid boiling, the heat is lowered to prevent hardening 
and shrinking of the fibers. The cooking is then continued from 
three to five hours or until the meat is tender. 

Boiled Leg of Mutton 

A leg of mutton that is too tough for roasting may be boiled. Put the 
meat into a kettle of suitable size, pour the boiling water over it, and boil 
for five minutes. Why? Then lower the heat and barely simmer till tender, 
about three hours. Add a tablespoonful of salt for each quart of water 
when the meat seems to be getting tender. Serve hot with caper sauce, or 
cold with any preferred relish. 

The water in which the meat is cooked may be utilized for broth unless 
of very strong flavor. 

Caper Sauce 

IV2 c. mutton stock 3 tbsp. flour 

% c. butter 1a> c. capers 

% tbsp. salt a few grains cayenne pepper 

Mix three tablespoonfuls of the cold stock with the flour. Bring the 
remaining stock to the boiling point. Add the flour mixture. Cook until 
smooth and thick, stirring constantly. Remove from the fire and add but- 
ter, salt, [uid well drained capers. 

STEWING AND BRAISING MEATS 
Review Experiment • I. 

Tough, juicy meats are braised, stewed, or pot roasted. (See 
Table, page 160.) The object in cooking them is to sear the sur- 
face enough to retain a part of the juices, then to soften the tis- 
sues by a long continued heat, with water added to prevent 
drying. After the first searing the heat must be lowered. The gravy 
contains much of the juice and is served with the meat. Meats 
for stews should contain fat, fairly tender flesh, and some bone. 

SteAvs should l)e of good flavor and tender. Do not cook 
until the meat falls to pieces, the proper time being from two to 
three hours. The gravy should be thickened to about the con- 



MEAT „ 171 

sistency of medium white sauce. Stews are very attractive if 
served in a border of cooked rice or mashed brown potato. 
Potatoes cut in cubes and boiled may be arranged around the 
platter and the stew served in the center. A stew may be made 
into a meat pie (See Chicken Pie, page 358). What cut would 
you select for stew ? 

*Irish Stew (Class Eecipe Vs) 

(Review Experiment VII,) 

2 lbs. meat 1 qt_ soup stock or cold water 

2 slices onion salt 

1 carrot flour 
4 to 6 white potatoes 

(In the lesson on Irish Stew, one class may carry out the first part of 
the process, and another class may complete it.) 

A fireless cooker is adapted to stews. 

Remove a part of the fat if necessary, and cut the meat into two-inch 
cubes. Sear coarse pieces of meat and bone slightly as for broiling. Cover 
with soup stock or water and bring gradually to the boiling point. Sprinkle 
the remainder of the meat with salt, roll in flour, and drop into the boiling 
stew. Boil for five minutes, cover closely, and let simmer until tender — - 
about three hours. After the first two hours add the onion and carrot. 
When the meat is tender, add the potatoes, pared, and boiled for ten minutes. 
Cook till tender, then add salt to taste, and serve. If preferred, potatoes 
may be cut into cubes. 

Brown Stew with Dumplings 

Sear the meat in a hot pan, then proceed as above. Instead of potatoes, 
dumplings may be added when the stew is tender. (For Dumplings, see 
page 348.) 

Be careful to have enough liquid to prevent the dumplings from sticking. 
A little boiling water may be added before putting them in. 

Pot Roast 

(A thick pot is best for this.) 

A cut from the round steak makes a good pot roast, or a piece from the 
chuck or shoulder may be used. Prepare as for roasting. Then sear in a 
hot frying jian, or in the pot, until it is partly browned. Add one-half 
cup of water to two pounds of meat. If a kettle with a large surface 
is used, more water will be needed. Lay a few slices of salt pork over 



172 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 




KNUCKLE SOUP BONE— ROUND 
(Too much bone for best soup) 





KNUCKLE SOUP BONES— FORE SHANK 

(Less bone in proportion to meat) 




FORE SHANK SOUP BONES 
(A better proportion of meat to bone) 



MEAT 173 

the meat. Cover tightly and cook very gently until tender, adding more 
water if the meat is in danger of sticking to the pot. When done season 
and add more water if needed ; then thicken as for roast beef gravy. Onion, 
parsley, carrot, and bay leaf may be added for flavoring when the meat 
is put in the pot. 

SOUPS AND BROTHS 

For soup a cut rich in meat juices is desired ; therefore a piece 
from the leg is usually chosen. The meat from the middle shin 
is the most desirable, as it contains a fair amount of flesh and 
will give a rich flavor; it has, too, a high proportion of bone 
which is rich in blood vessels, and in collagen and marrow. The 
very bony cuts give too much gelatin. A piece of lean meat must 
be added if bony cuts are used. Any cheap cut of meat may be 
used — shin, neck, joints, or tough ends of roast, steak, or stew. 
As the object in soup making is to extract as much juice as 
possible, the meat is cut into small cubes and the bone is sawed 
into inch lengths. 

Meat soups are rich in extractives and stimulate the appetite 
if palatably seasoned, but they are not of much food value unless 
they are made very thick with some nourishing substance, such 
as rice, barley, or some of the pastes such as macaroni and 
noodles. If the meat is served in the soup, the food value is 
increased, as soup meat is nourishing. 

*Brown Soup Stock (For Class of Twenty, 3 lbs. of Meat and Bone) 
(See Experiments I, II, and III) 

(The making of stock and soup will require two lessons. All pupils 
should be taught both processes. Beginning pupils may omit lesson on 
clearing of soup stock.) 

Froportions. Two parts of flesh to one part of bone, 1 qt. water to 
1 lb. of flesh and bone. 

Seasonings. For 1 qt. water; 1 tsp. salt, 14 bay leaf, 1 pepper corn, 
1 tbsp. chopped celery, 1 tbsp. shredded parsley. 

For a family of six use 2 qts. water as it will be reduced in cooking and 
will give % c. of soup for each serving. v 

This is not a rich stock, but makes a very palatable soup. A smaller 
amount of water will make a richer soup. 

In making soup the bones from poultry, beef, and lamb may be used; 



174 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

also any other cooked or raw meat, all browned skin, however, being 
removed. Do not use bits of highly seasoned nieats or salt meats for soup. 
Mutton and the fat of lamb, for instance, impart a strong flavor. At 
least twice as much uncooked as cooked meat should be used. Soup stock can 
))e kept for several days on ice, but spoils quickly if kept warm. If there is 
not time to cool the stock before using skim off as much fat as possible, then 
pass over it a piece of cloth first wrapped about a piece of ice, or remove the 
Int with absorbent paper. For a rich soup use twice the amount of meat 
given in the recipe above. 

If there is no cooked meat to be added to the stock, one-third of the 
meat must be browned. Melt a little of the marrow fat in a small frying 
pan and broil the meat in it. Put all the meat and bone in a deep enam- 
eled soup kettle with a close fitting lid, pour the water over it, add salt, 
and let stand for one hour. Why let stand? (See Experiment II.) Cook 
very gently for five or six hours. One hour before the soup is done add the 
vegetables and pepper corns (the flavor of vegetables is driven off by long 
cooking). When the vegetables are soft, strain the stock through a sieve 
into a porcelain bowl. Cool quickly and keep in a cool place until ready to 
use. Then remove the fat (see Fats and Oils). The layer of fat keeps the 
air from the stock and helps to preserve it. 

Clearing Soup Stock (Class Eecipe V4) 

Allow one egg to each quart of stock. After removing the fat put the 
stock into a saucepan. Add the egg slightly beaten. Place the saucepan over 
a brisk heat, and stir constantly. When the stock is warm add any sea- 
sonings needed and continue stirring until it boils. Boil for two minutes, 
then lower the heat and let simmer for twenty minutes. Skim and strain 
tlirough a double thickness of cheesecloth, wrung out of hot water. 

By boiling, the albumin of the stock is coagulated, and the egg as it is 
heated also coagulates and entangles all solids in the stock in it. Clear soup 
is less nourishing than other soup, but as it is usually served at the begin- 
ning of a heavy dinner this is not objectionable. 

Bouillon 

This is a rich soup stock made of lean meat without bone. Use 2M> lbs. 
of meat to each qt. of water. Season as directed for brown stock, adding 
2 tbsp. each of chopped carrot and turnip, and 1 tbsp. of onion. Clear if 
desired. Eeheat and season to taste with salt and pepper and serve in cups. 

White Stock 
Veal or chicken is used for white stock. 2 lbs. of knuckle of veal to 1 qt. 
of water should be used. Proceed as for brown stock, but do not sear the 
meat. Omit parsley and add a blade of mace, and ^2 tbsp. of onion. 



MEAT 



175 



*Vegetable Soup (Class Recipe 1/4) 

1 qt. uncleared stock i/^ pt. tonintoes 

3 tbsp, carrot or 3 tbsp. celery 

3 tbsp. green peas or asparagus tips 5^ tbsp. onion 

The vegetables should be cut into thin strips and cooked gently in the 
soup until tender. 

*Tomato Soup 

1 qt. stock 1 qt. fresh or canned tomato 

2 tbsp. chopped onion 2 tbsp. chopped carrot 
1 tbsp. parsley 4 whole cloves 

1/4 tsp. fresh or powdered thyme 1 tsp. cornstarch soda 

2 tbsp. cold water 

Cook tomatoes, soup stock, and seasonings together for half an hour. 
Strain. Bring to the boiling point. Add cornstarch mixed to a j^aste with 
cold water. Let simmer for fifteen minutes. Skim and serve in hot cups 
with one teaspoonful of whipped cream on each cup. Pass croutons or small 
thin crackers with the soup. 

LEFT-OVEE MEATS 

Since meat is such an expensive part of our diet none of it 
should be wasted. As it is perishable it should not be cooked in 
large quantities, but any that remains may be served in many 
palatable forms. 

Fat from soup, gravy, etc., may be clarified and used for 
many purposes (See page 225). Uncooked fat may be rendered 
(See page 225) and used. 

Broiled meats are not easily utilized but may be stewed very 
gently until tender, then used in various ways. 

Roast beef is not economical for a small family unless all the 
cold meat can be made into appetizing dishes. Beef reheated by 
the following method can hardly be distinguished from that cut 
from the fresh hot roast. 

*Reheated Beef 

Slice the beef thinly, warm a platter of suitable size, make a rich brown 
gravy, and lay the meat on the platter. Pour over it the hot gravy, place 
it in the warming oven for ten minutes (the oven must not be too warm), 
and serve. Meats reheated in this way may be utilized in a hot sandwich. 



176 'J'HE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Gravy. Left-over gravy may be reheated or a good heavy gravy may 
be made of rich beef stock thickened with browned flour. The gravy should 
be seasoned to taste. The bones of the roast will make a good stock for the 
gravy. 

Another method of reheating is to cut the meat into thin slices, then- broil 
quickly in a boiler, or pan broil. The meat must not be very brown — just 
heated. Pour over it a little melted butter, or brown or tomato sauce. 

The bits of meat that are too small to reheat in the manner given above 
may be utilized in hash, served on rounds of toast, or in a rice border. 
Eemember that meat that has been cooked is toughened by additional heat, 
so must be heated very moderately the second time and for a short time only. 

Meat Cakes 

Any cold meat may be mixed with bread crumbs and a little egg, or 
with mashed potatoes, or cooked rice, and molded into cakes, then dipped in 
egg and crumbs (see page 122), and browned in a quick oven. Serve with 
brown gravy, or with white or tomato sauce. Rice combined with chicken 
or mutton and served with white sauce is appetizing; with beef, potatoes 
and brown gravy are good. 

Jellied Meats 

Cold meats molded in jelly (See Turkey in Aspic, page 185) serve as a 
pleasing variation from hash and croquettes. A little soup stock, well 
flavored, with gelatin added may be used. Serve jellied meats on lettuce 
leaves with an appetizing dressing unless they are highly seasoned. 

English Hash 

1 c. chopped meat % c. gravy 

1 tsp. chopped onion salt, pepper, and flour 

Meat reheated in gravy is more digestible than browned hash. Chop the 
meat. Sprinkle with flour, pepper, and salt. Heat the gravy and onion. 
Add the meat and let barely simmer for ten minutes. The hash may be 
served on toast, thus utilizing stale bread. 

*Casserole of Rice and Meat (Class Recipe) 

Soup meat may be utilized in this dish, as it is nourishing. Since it has 
lost the extractives which give flavor, additional seasoning is required. 

Line a buttered custard cup with rice. Chop the meat, sprinkle with salt 
and flour, and add a drop of onion juice. Pack the mixture in the center 



MEAT 177 

of the cup. Pour over it a tablespoonful of the stock and cover with rice or 
crumbs, then steam for twenty minutes. Let stand for a few minutes. Turn 
from the cup and serve. Tomato sauce may be used with the casserole. (For 
Tomato Sauce, see page 126.) 

For home use an earthenware pudding dish may be used for the casserole 
and it may be served directly from the dish. 

Cold chicken may be served in this way with a white sauce. 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

Why is meat cooked? Why does a rapid heating of the surface of meat 
keep in the meat juice? Mention several ways in which this heat may be 
applied. Why is flour, egg, or batter put on meat? What is the main point 
to keep in mind in making soup? Why is undercooked meat objectionable? 
What is the result if it is overcooked? 

Tell how to prepare meat for cooking. What is meant by broiling? 
What meats may be broiled? Describe a properly broiled steak. Write a 
menu for luncheon or dinner with broiled steak for the meat. What dessert 
is appropriate? Which do you prefer, pan broiling or frying? Why? 
What cuts are suitable for roasting? Describe the process. What cuts are 
suitable for stewing (see Table) ? Write a recipe for meat pie using the 
stew and chicken pie recipes for examples. Compare actual time used in 
preparing stew and broiled steak. Compare the cost of each. Compare the 
palatability of each. Why does veal require thorough cooking? What cut 
of veal would you select for soup? What is the proper proportion of meat 
and bone in veal for soup? What meats could be used for soup? Compare 
the food values of bouillon and a soup where the vegetables and meat are 
served in it. Why is soup boiled to clear it? Why is egg added? 

What use can you make of the fat from the top of the soup? Of that 
from stews and roasts? How can you render suet? How would you utilize 
cold stew? Soup meat and roast? 

Supplementary Eecipes 

*Pork sausage (p. 371) Hocks and other bones (p. 372) 

Liver and bacon (p. 371) Veal pie (p. 369) 

Broiled ham (p. 371) *Beef balls in fireless cooker (p. 369) 

Koast leg of lamb (p. 370) Braised beef (p. 368) 

*Breaded mutton chops (p. 370) *Veal loaf (p. 369) 

Boast pork (p. 370) Browned hash (p. 368) 

Ham, boiled and baked (p. 372) 



CHAPTER XII 

POULTRY AND FISH 
rOULTliY 

The housekeeper who understands the raising and use of 
poultry can do much to lessen the cost of the important protein 
foods. Refer to table for composition of young and mature 
fowls. 

Selecting" Live Poultry. "When possible, chickens or other 
poultry should be purchased alive as the presence of disease is 
then more easily detected. Healthy chickens should have bright 
eyes; a drooping bird is sick. The legs should be smooth. A 
young chicken or other fowl has soft feet and a smooth skin ; the 
cartilage at the end of the breast bone is soft, and pin feathers 
are abundant. Very long hairs denote age. If grown fowls are 
old the breast cartilage is stiff. A fowl should be fat and plump ; 
young chickens are not as plump as older ones. The bird should 
be heavy in proportion to its size. Examine carefully, especially 
under wings and legs, and on neck and head, for lice, fleas, and 
ticks. A bird so infested cannot be in good condition. In most 
markets birds of light or yellow skins are in demand. Grown 
chickens are known as fowls and young ones as spring chickens. 
The smaller of these are called broilers, the larger, fryers. 

If one has a place for keeping chickens it is well to purchase 
them by the dozen, thus reducing cost. Careful feeding for a week 
or two will improve the flavor of the meat. A ration of corn, 
wheat bran, and skimmed milk, with some green vegetable that 
is not too highly flavored, produces a plump, tender bird of 
good flavor. Table scraps are a good supplement to such a 
ration. 

Dressed Poultry. Poultry should be drawn as soon as 
killed, as the digestive organs are filled with substances that 

178 



POULTRY AND FISH I79 

decompose rapidly. The liquids pass readily through the walls 
of the intestines, and are absorbed by the tender flesh. 

A good fresh fowl should have a well-rounded, plump form 
with no bony angles about the breast. These always indicate 
a lack of tender white meat. The skin should be free from 
bruises, blotches, and pin feathers. If the bird is scalded before 
picking, the skin may look drawn. The flesh should not be flabby, 
but should yield evenly and gently when pressed with the fingers. 
If the chicken is fresh, the feet are moist and limber, and the 
eyes appear bright and full. 

Poultry does not keep as well in cold storage as beef does; 
the young chickens especially decompose very quickly. Cold 
storage chickens have a peculiar squeezed appearance, due to the 
way in which they have been packed. They also have a dis- 
tinctive odor that is not found about the fresh birds. 

Fowls carefully dressed and promptly cooled may be kept 
in a clean refrigerator for a week if the temperature does not 
go above 50^ F. In most households, however, the temperature 
of the ice-box is not uniformly as low as this. If dressed birds 
are to be kept longer, the atmosphere should be dry and the 
temperature not above 34° F. 

Dressing Fowls. No food should be given to fowls for at 
least twelve hours before they are killed. This makes the 
removal of the intestines much easier. The usual manner of 
killing is by cutting off the head. The bird is then hung head 
down for several minutes. It should be picked before the feath- 
ers become set. Dry picking is considered the best for market 
fowls, but for home use scalding before picking is to be preferred. 
Insects on the bird will be killed in this manner. Never use 
water that is quite boiling for young chickens, as boiling water 
softens the skin so that it is apt to be torn when the feathers 
are pulled out. 

Put the chicken in a deep pan. Have a kettle of boiling 
water ready. Pour a cup of cold water in the kettle. Then 
pour the water over the chicken. Turn the chicken from side 
to side, holding it by one foot; then with a cloth and fork lift 



IgO THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

it by the neck and turn the feet down into the water. Hold it 
Lip to drain. Then lay it in a pan and pick off the feathers. 
Remove pin feathers with the point of a knife, being* careful 
].ot to brcc.k llio ;kln. When all the feathers are off, the fowl 
should be singed to remove the liairs that are to be found even 
on young birds. Hold the chicken over a gas or alcohol flame, 
turning it about so that the flame will reach every part, but do 
not let the skin and flesh become too hot, as they will then 
become scorched and will have a bad taste. If there is no gas 
flame singe the bird by holding it over burning paper. As soon 
as the chicken is singed cut off the legs at the knee joint. Lay 
the chicken in a pan of cold Avater and scrub well with a clean 
cloth, then dry and lay on a meat board-. 

Cutting Up and Dressing* a Chicken for Panning or Frying. 
With a sharp knife cut off the oil bag that lies at the top of the 
tail. Take out the crop, first cutting through the skin about the 
middle of the crop, then pulling out the pouch. Cut the neck 
bone off close to the shoulders. After this is done cut off the 
wings and legs close to the body and turn the tips of the wings 
under the first joint. Divide the legs at the joint between the 
second joint and the drum stick. Put the knife in at the point 
of the wish-bone which lies over the breast. Then slice up 
toward the neck where the points of the wish-bone are joined 
to the shoulders. Cut down at each side of the neck and take off 
the bones which look like the wish-bone, but which lie in a reverse 
position. Lay the chicken on the meat board with the underside 
up. Cut across the skin a little way from the tail, making a 
horizontal cut. Be careful not to make the cut deep enough to 
enter the intestines. Lift, and turn the breast-bone back until 
the intestines are visible. Lift the heart, gizzard, and intestines, 
being careful not to break anything, and cut around the tube 
that joins the intestines to the skin. Separate the back from 
the breast and neck. Divide in two parts, cutting along the 
side of the back-bone. Separate the breast from the neck and 
cut into two pieces lengthwise. The neck may be used for stock 
or gravy. Remove the gizzard, liver, and heart from the intes- 



POULTEY AND FISH 



181 



tines, being careful not to break the gall bladder, which is a 
greenish gland lying under the left lobe of the liver. Remove the 
gall bladder, taking a part of the liver with it. The liver should 
be smooth and of a solid brown color. If mottled or very much 
enlarged it should be discarded; if it shows abscesses or para- 
sites throw the bird away. Make a cut around the gizzard, 
being careful not to cut the inner lining, pull the gizzard open, 
and turn out the inner sack. Cut off the tubes of the heart. 




FOWL TRUSSED FOR ROASTING (Left) 
CHICKEN CUT FOR PANNING (Center) 
CHICKEN SPLIT FOR BROILING (Right) 

Wash the giblets (the heart, liver, and gizzard) very thoroughly. 
Remove the lungs from the cavities formed by the ribs and take 
out the kidneys, which are found in the back. Throw away 
kidneys and lungs. Wipe the chicken with a damp cloth. Keep 
in a very cold place for twenty-four hours, or cook immediately. 
The flesh of animals becomes stiff soon after killing and does not 
soften for several hours. 

Dressing a Fowl for Roasting. Make a slit in the skin at 
the side of the neck and remove the crop and wind pipe, cutting 



132 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

off the tube that goes from the crop to the gizzard. Make a ver- 
tical cut in the skin from the tip of the breast bone to the under 
part of the tail. Insert the hand as high up as possible and 
remove the heart, liver, and intestines, cutting carefully around 
the part of the intestines that joins the skin. Remove the lungs 
and kidneys. Pour water through the fowl until the cavity is 
well washed. Wipe inside and out very carefully, then truss 
into shape. 

Trussing a Fowl. When a bird is to be cooked whole, it 
should be trussed into shape as soon as it is cleaned. For 
trussing, use metal skewers or a mattress needle and twine. 
Press the legs closely against the body, pass the needle through 
the second joint (from the right), bring out on the left side, 
pass the needle back near to first stitch, and tie. Put a like 
stitch through the wings. Draw the drumsticks together and 
tie, bringing the ends of the joints close to the tail and passing 
the string around it. Turn the neck skin to the back between 
the wings and fasten with a stitch. Skewers may be used in this 
manner. When ready to stuff remove the skewers, if necessary. 

METHODS OF COOKING CHICKEN 

Spring chickens are more palatable when cooked by some 
of the quick methods and with little water. The large fryers 
make good stews, but the juices of the young, tender birds 
will not bear so much dilution. The flesh of young chicken is 
easily digested if properly cooked ; that is, by a simple method 
without high seasoning. Frying is most objectionable, as chicken 
cooked in this way taxes any but the strongest digestion. Older 
fowls may be roasted or fricasseed. Very old fowls are seldom 
palatable. They must be stewed, braised, or boiled. 

*Roast Chicken 

(See Roast Turkey, page 184.) 

Select a chicken not over a year old. Dress and truss as directed. If the 
chicken is to be cooked unstuffed, split it down the back when drawing it, 
and after wiping it fasten the legs and wings in position. 



GiBLET Stock 



POULTRY AND FISH ;[g3 

Sprinkle the chicken with salt, dredge with flour, and place it in a 
baking pan, flesh side up. Lay over the legs thin slices of salt pork and 
put a few small pieces in the pan. Cook in a hot oven, basting frequently. 
When the flesh side is well seared, cook for a short time with the skin side 
up in order to brown it. Cook fifteen minutes to the pound. 

Do not fill the cavity entirely when stuffing. (See Bread Stuffing, 
page 185.) While cooking turn the fowl frequently as the breast will be 
more tender than if kept up all the time. Serve with giblet sauce. 

*Giblet Sauce 

'Feet with skin removed 1^/2 c. cold water 
Piece of neck 
Tips of wings 
Heart, liver, and gizzard 

Cook as directed for soup stock (p. 173) until flesh is 
tender. 

1 c. of giblet stock 2 tbsp. butter or chicken fat 

iy2 tbsp. browned flour or 1 tbsp. white flour 

Proceed as for brown sauce, add chopped giblets, and serve in a gravy 
boat. 

Panned Chicken 

Select a medium-sized spring chicken. Dress and cut in pieces as 
directed. Wash and, while still moist, sprinkle with salt and a very little 
pepper. Eoll in flour. Place in a shallow baking pan, just large enough to 
hold the chicken. Put directly over the flame and pour in two cups of boiling 
water. When the water is boiling briskly, lay the chicken in. Add two slices 
of salt pork and let boil for three minutes. Then put the pan under the 
flame of a gas stove or on the grate of a wood stove. When the surface of 
the chicken is crusted over and slightly browned, cover and cook until 
tender. When done arrange the chicken on a hot platter, and place the pan 
over the flame. Dilute the gravy with a little hot water if necessary. Add 
one-fourth cup of thin or two tablespoonfuls of thick cream. Bring to the 
boiling point and season to taste. Pour it over the chicken. The gravy 
should be moderately thick and if necessary flour may be added when the 
cream is put in. 

Stewed Chicken 

Cut a chicken as for panning. Sprinkle with salt and flour. Drop into 
barely enough boiling water to cover, and boil for five minutes. Then cook 
gently until tender. Season to taste. Thicken the gravy if necessary. Serve 
hot. The time needed depends on the age of the chicken. 



134 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Chicken Fricassee 

Dredge chicken with flour, brown in bacon fat, and then proceed as for 
stewed chicken. Thicken the gravy by adding the yolk of one egg to each 
cup of liquid. 

Chicken Stock 

2 qts. cold water One medium-sized fowl 

Cut up the fowl as for panning. Keserve the giblets, as they give a 
strong flavor to the soup. Proceed as for white soup stock (See page 174), 
omitting the mace and adding one tablespoonful of carrot. Strain and cool. 

Chicken Soup 

Eemove the fat from the stock. Add one cup of thin cream for each 
quart of stock. Heat to the boiling point. Season and serve. 

METHODS OF COOKING TURKEY 

Turkeys have considerable fat in the fibers and therefore are 
not adapted to use in hot weather. The half-grown turkeys are 
delicious if split down the back and quickly roasted. Older birds 
may be stuffed and cooked. A young turkey hen, if plump, is 
more economical for a small family than a large gobbler, but the 
latter furnishes a greater proportion of breast. 

Turkey is dressed as other poultry, for roasting. If one is 
skillful the tendons may be removed before the legs are taken off. 
Cut the skin around the leg one and a half inches below the knee 
joint. Bend the leg over the edge of the table just at the cut 
and break the bone. Pull off the foot, bringing the tendons 
with it. If the bird is old, use a steel skewer, removing each 
tendon separately. 

When are turkeys plentiful in your markets? "What is the cost per 
pound? How does this compare with the price of beef? In selecting turkey, 
how would you judge the age? 

Roast Turkey 

(See Dressing a Fowl for Eoasting, page 181.) 

After the turkey is cleaned and trussed, put it in a cool place over 
night, or keep on ice for several days if desired. Any preferred stuffing 
may be used. Never use oyster stuffing unless the bird is to be eaten 
immediately after cooking. 



POXJLTEY AND FISH 185 

When the stuffing is ready, fill the neck cavity (using a spoon) until the 
breast looks plump ; then turn the skin to the back and sew it down. Fill 
the body cavity well but do not pack. Sew up the opening, using a large 
needle and a coarse thread. Take a few stitches but do not draw them very 
tight. Skewer or sew the legs in place. Dampen the outside of the fowl, 
sprinkle with salt, dredge thoroughly with flour, lay on a rack in a baking 
pan with the breast up, place in a hot oven, and baste every ten minutes 
with equal parts of hot water and melted butter. At the end of the first 
half hour, add one-half cup of water and use the liquid in the pan for 
basting. Have the oven very hot for the first half -hour and then lower the 
heat slightly. Cook an eight-pound fowl for two and one-half or three 
hours. Keep the breast down part of the time, and it will be more juicy. 
When ready to serve, garnish with curled celery tips or parsley and serve 
with it giblet sauce (See page 183) and a tart jelly. 

*Plain Bread Stuffing 

1 qt. bread % tsp. white pepper 

1 tbsp. chopped parsley 1 tsp. salt 

Cut slices one-half inch thick from stale bread. Remove the crust, butter 
carefully, cut into small squares, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Add 
parsley. If desired add to the dressing two tablespoonfuls of finely 
chopped onion, or one cup of chopped celery. 

Turkey in Aspic 

Left-over turkey may be utilized in the same way as cold beef or chicken. 

IVi qts. stock 2 tbsp. chopped onion 

2 tbsp. chopped carrot 2 tbsp. chopped celery 

1 tbsp. parsley 1 tsp. thyme 

1 tsp. savory 1 bay leaf 

2 cloves ' % tsp. peppercorns 
2y2 tbsp. gelatin 2 tbsp. lemon juice 

salt cayenne 

2 egg-whites 

Cook the turkey bones for three hours in a covered saucepan with one 
and one-half quarts of water. Cook until reduced to one and one-fourth 
quarts. Add seasonings, except lemon juice, cayenne, and salt. Cook for ten 
minutes. Strain through cheesecloth, and cool. Soak the gelatin in one-half 
cup of the cool stock until soft. Warm the remaining stock. Then add the 
gelatin and lemon juice and bring to the boiling point. Season with salt 
and cayenne. Beat the whites of eggs until slightly foamy. Add to them 



186 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

gradually one cup of the hot mixture. Then add the egg and stock very 
gradually to the hot liquid, and bring again to the boiling point, stirring 
constantly. Remove to the back of the range and let stand for half an hour. 
Strain through a jelly bag and cool. Select a round pan that v^ill be full 
when the turkey and jelly are added. Set the pan in ice water and pour in 
enough of the aspic to cover the bottom. When this is firm, decorate the 
surface with hard cooked eggs sliced and cut in fancy shapes. Pour in more 
aspic, a spoonful at a time, until the eggs are firmly fixed, and then add 
enough to make the jelly three-fourths of an inch thick. When firm, put in 
a layer of turkey in small, thin slices, first dipping them in a little liquid 
aspic. Add the jelly a little at a time until the mold is full. If the mold 
is very deep, two layers of turkey may be added. When the jelly is firm, 
turn from the mold on to a fancy platter and garnish with parsley, or cut in 
slices and serve on lettuce leaves. 

Minced Turkey on Toast 

Remove the meat from the bones. Break the bones and remove all 
scorched portions; then cover with cold water and bring to the boiling point. 
Let simmer for one hour. Strain the liquid and remove the fat from the 
top. Cut the meat in small cubes, removing all scraps of skin and dress- 
ing. Sprinkle lightly with flour, turn into a saucepan, and cover with the 
stock made from the bones. Have the stock boiling and add only enough 
to cover the meat. Let simmer gently for twenty minutes; then add one 
tablespoonful of flour and two tablespoonfuls of rich cream. If thin cream 
is used, add one teaspoonful of butter. Heap on nicely browned squares of 
toast and serve on a large platter. 

COOKING OTHER FOWL 

The Guinea Fowl. In some markets, the guinea fowl is 
cheaper than other poultry. A guinea fowl over a year 
old is not palatable, but the young birds when just feath- 
ered are delicious if broiled. Roast as directed for chicken, 
un stuffed. 

Ducks and Geese. Domesticated ducks should be young to 
be at their best. Some of the improved breeds now on the 
market make plump fowl at an early age. Fully matured 
ducks are too oily to be very palatable and are apt to disturb 
the digestion. Geese are good only when young. Dress as 
directed for chickens. Ducks and geese have no crop. Stuffing 



POULTEY AND FISH I37 

is used in duck only to give flavor. Put into the body cavity 
a peeled onion, one or two apples cored, peeled, and quartered, 
and a little powdered sage. Salt, dredge with flour, and cook 
as directed for roast chicken. 

Squabs. Young pigeons, known as squabs, should be fat 
and plump. The large ones, known as jumbo squabs, are now 
much used as game. They are usually broiled, but may also be 
stuffed with sweet potato and roasted as directed for chicken. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Would it pay you to raise poultry? How does the flesh of chicken com- 
pare with that of beef in digestibility and food value? What is the per- 
centage of waste in live fowls? In dressed fowls? How mr.ch per pound 
does the part that is served cost? How much of this is waste? Compare 
cost of beef, mutton, and chicken. 

Describe the appearance of a chicken in good condition. How can an old 
fowl be distinguished from a young one? What objection is there to cold 
storage chickens? 

What method of cooking should be selected for spring chicken? Men- 
tion a way of cooking a ''frying" chicken that would enable one to serve 
the largest number of persons. How could cold chicken or turkey be used? 
What precaution must one use in cooking left-over meat dishes? 

What poultry and game are available in your locality? Is it fresh or 
from cold storage? How does the price compare with other meats? What 
points should be considered in judging the quality and condition of meats? 
What one meat may be had in the best condition in your market? Can you 
make this one your staple meat, considering carefully price and palatability? 

FISH 

Fish is perhaps a little more difficult to digest than tender 
cuts of beef or tender chicken. The varieties that contain much 
fat are more difficult to digest than the leaner kinds. Red 
snapper or bass is more digestible than Spanish mackerel. Why ? 

In markets remote from the water there are few varieties of 
fish offered, but near the great bodies of water there are many 
kinds from which choice may be made, including pompano, sea 
trout, Spanish mackerel, red fish, red snapper, flounder, cod, 



188 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

haddock, halibut, salmon, and shad. Among the fresh water 
fish are perch, trout, bass, and catfish. Of the shellfish oysters, 
clams, shrimps, lobsters, and crabs are used. 

Compare food value of fish as given in the table, page 147, with that of 
beef. Compare prices in your market. For a given sum — twenty-five cents, 
for example — which would furnish the greater quantity of food, beef or fish, 
not considering food value? Compare, considering food value and price. 
What fish are offered in your market*? Where are they caught? 

Selecting Fish. Any variety of fish that has been out of 
water long is not a safe food. In selecting fish, always choose 
the freshest. Fish from clear cold water are more highly 
esteemed than those from warm water ; and those from gravelly 
or sandy bottoms are considered better than those from muddy 
bottoms. Fish allowed to die slowly spoil more rapidly than 
those killed immediately. Fish for transportation should be 
frozen. 

Good fish must be firm ; if the tail is limp the fish is old. 
The following advice, from the United States bulletin on fish, 
furnishes a safeguard against the purchase of stale fish. 
"Fish should be considered unfit for food when their eyes 
have lost their sheen, the cornea is somewhat cloudy, the 
gills pale red, and the blubber shows at the gills ; when the scales 
are dry and easily loosened, or when the meat is so soft that 
when pressed with the fingers the indentation remains." Some 
unscrupulous dealers use blood coloring on the gills; others 
remove the head. Any fish with a strong odor should be avoided. 
Fish is a frequent source of ptomaine poisoning, and it is not 
safe to use any but the freshest. 

Oysters are not in the best condition in summer. If dead in 
the shell they are not fit for food. Good oysters close the shell 
when removed from the water, and move when touched. There 
is a clean fluid inside the shell. The slightest odor of staleness 
about the oyster is a good reason for rejecting it. No preserva- 
tives should be used. Oysters should not be frozen. The oyster, 
if from polluted waters, may be a source of typhoid and other 
diseases. 



POULTRY AND PISH Xg9 

Canned and Preserved Fish. Fish decomposes easily, and 
if canned has the additional danger of a possible absorption 
of metal from the can. Like all preserved meats, it is more 
difficult to digest than the fresh fish. Fresh foods can usually 
be substituted for it. What foods other than meat are a good 
substitute for fish in your locality? 

Cleaning Fish. Fish is usually cleaned at the market, but 
as the cleaning is often carelessly done, one should remove the 
remaining scales when it is received. Begin near the tail and 
work toward the head. Use a knife, turning it a little toward 
your body, so that the flesh will not be cut. A large number of 
scales are found on the flank and under part of the body. After 
the scales are removed, cut off the head, if desired, and wipe 
the fish inside and out with a cloth wrung from cold water. The 
fins may be cut off close to the body with large scissors. When 
fish are to be split and boiled or baked, always remove the back 
fin. If the fish has not been dressed, remove the scales as 
directed. Then split the fish on the lower part of the body 
and remove the intestines. 

Fish is sometimes skinned, but this can be done successfully 
only when the fish is fresh. To skin a fish remove the back 
fin, cutting off a narrow strip of skin with it. Loosen the skin 
next to the gill on one side; then pull the skin from the flesh. 
Remove the skin from the other side in like manner. After the 
fish is skinned it may be boned. Beginning at the tail, run a 
sharp knife along the back, making as clean a cut as possible. 
Lift off the half of the fish, then turn and remove the other side. 
Pick out the small bones with the finger. A piece of skinned 
and boned fish is known as a fillet. 

Opening Oysters. To open oysters use a stout thin knife. 
Put the knife under the back of the upper valve and press it 
to the front until it cuts the muscle that joins the shells, then 
lift the upper valve. 

Cleaning Oysters. Oysters are usually delivered with the 
shells removed. Pick the bits of shell off and place the oysters 



190 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

in a sieve. Wash by pouring over them a little cold water, a 
half cup to a pint of oysters. 

Ways of Cooking Fish. The principles of cooking given 
for meat apply in a general way to fish. The following are 
some of the exceptions : since fish is more watery, the flesh 
requires a high temperature throughout the cooking period. 
Fish should never be served rare. It must be thoroughly cooked 
but not overdone. Fish is done when it shrinks from the bone 
and when no juice flows as the flakes are pulled apart. Oysters 
should be lightly cooked as they become tough if overheated. 
Oyster stew must not boil. 

The method of cooking depends on the quality of the fish 
and on the size. Thin, highly flavored fish like pompano, 
Spanish mackerel, and trout, are best when broiled, and should 
be served with plain dressing so as to preserve the flavor. Sliced 
fish may also be broiled. Fish that require liberal seasoning, 
such as the red fish, are best when baked or pan broiled in the 
oven. It is difficult to baste a fish satisfactorily while broiling 
it. Large fish, rich in fat, may be boiled in salted water to 
which lemon juice has been added. The salt adds to the flavor 
and the lemon whitens the flesh. Fish lacking in fat must be 
cooked with fat or served with a rich sauce. An acid sauce or 
relish is appetizing. Small bony fish are fried. 

Removing Fish from Broiler. Fish sticks to the broiler and 
is difficult to remove. When the fish is done, place the broiler 
over a large pan or on a zinc covered table. Take a four-pronged 
kitchen fork and slip it over the wire of the broiler so that two 
prongs are on each side of the wire. Press down on the fish 
and slip the fork the full length of the wire. Repeat on all the 
wires, touching the fish on both sides of the broiler Then slip 
the fish from the broiler, skin side down, to a warm platter. 

Baked fish may be easily removed from the pan if strips of 
cloth dipped in bacon fat are placed under it when it is put into 
the pan. 



POULTRY AND FISH 191 

*Fish Broiled Under the Gas Tlame (Class Recipe — One small fish for 

four pupils) 

Fish may be pan broiled very well under a gas flame or on the grate of a 
wood range. Heat an ordinary baking pan very hot and rub with melted but- 
ter. Split the fish and remove the back-bone. Place it in the pan on a 
slice of fat pork with the skin side down. Draw the fish together to protect 
the thin middle portion. Sprinkle with salt and pepper and baste well with 
melted butter. Cook for at least half an hour. Have the gas flnme turned 
high until the fish browns ; then lower the heat. Place on the lower shelf of 
the upper oven occasionally to heat the bottom. Baste with lemon sauce 
every ten minutes. Lift the fish carefully on to a large platter and garnish 
with parsley and slices of lemon. 

Lemon Sauce 

IVi; tbsp. lemon juice 2 tbsp. butter 

4 tbsp. hot water 

Mix all together, and place on the back of the range to keep hot. 

*Baked Fish, Hollandaise Sauce 

A 3 or 4 pound fish 1 c. bread crumbs 

1 tbsp. capers 1 tbsp. chopped parsley 

1 tbsp. chopped onion 1 tbsp. melted butter 

1/4 tsp. white pepper i/-> tsp. salt 

Select a fish suitable for baking and clean as directed. Use but little 
stufiing as it is only for seasoning. Mix the stuffing. Fill the cavity and 
sew up the opening. Rub the fish thoroughly with salt. Put pepper and 
butter on both sides. Cut gashes across sides of fish two inches apart. 
Do not have the gashes opposite one another. Lay a very small strip of salt 
pork in each gash. (If pork is not used, baste with sauce given for broiled 
fish.) Skewer fish in shape of letter "S" and dredge well with flour. Put 
pieces of pork in pan so that the fish will not stick. Place the fish on a strip 
of cheesecloth and bake in a hot oven, allowing fifteen minutes to the pound. 
Baste frequently; garnish with parsley and slices of lemon, and serve with 
Hollandaise Sauce. (See page 192.) Fish with dry flesh is improved if 
baked in a covered roasting pan. 

Boiled Pish 

Select a whole fish of three or four pounds or a thick piece of like weight 
from a large fish if a small one is not obtainable. Be sure that the piece 
selected is very compact. 



192 THE SCIENCE OF HOM^: MAKING 

A fish kettle with a rack is desirable, but if none is at hand a perforated 
frying basket may be used or a perforated tin sheet may be supported in 
a saucepan. When a piece of fish is used tie it in a freshly scalded cheese- 
cloth to prevent the scum from settling on it. The size of the kettle must 
be adapted to the fish so that a large quantity of water need not be used. 
Barely cover the fish with boiling water. Add one teaspoonful of salt, and 
one and one-half tablespoonfuls of lemon juice. Place on the fire and boil 
gently until the flesh is ready to leave the bone — about half an hour will be 
required, the time depending largely upon the amount of surface exposed to 
the water. Lift the sheet very carefully from the kettle and slide the fish on 
to a hot platter, first removing the cheesecloth if one has been used. Garnish 
with parsley and potato balls. (Cut small balls from white potatoes with a 
vegetable scoop, and cook in boiling salted water.) Put a little sauce over 
the center of the fish and also a few slices of hard cooked egg. Serve with 
egg or Hollandaise Sauce and vegetable jelly or cole slaw. 

Hollandaise Sauce (Vs Recipe for 4 Pupils) 

% c. butter 2 egg yolks 

% c. boiling water 1 tbsp. lemon juice 

% tsp. salt 
Put the butter into a bowl, cover with cold water, and wash, using a 
spoon. Divide the butter into three pieces. Put one piece with egg yolks 
and lemon juice into a saucepan and cook over hot water. The water must 
not boil. Stir until the butter melts. Add second piece, then third. When 
melted add water and cook for one minute. Season, strain, and serve. 

Codfish Balls With Tomato Sauce 

4 medium-sized potatoes i/4 c. milk or cream 

Yi tsp. white pepper % lb. dried codfish 

Pull the codfish apart, pour boiling water over it, let stand a moment, 
and heat to boiling point. Drain. Cover with cold water and proceed as 
before, Do this a third time. Then press very dry and add potatoes (which 
have been boiled and mashed), the white pepper, milk or cream (if milk is 
used add one tablespoonful of butter), and salt if needed. Rub until smooth 
then form into balls. Lay on a buttered pan, and set in a hot oven for 
fifteen minutes. Place the balls on a hot platter and pour over them a 
tomato sauce. (See page 126.) 

Canned Salmon 

Canned fish should be used sparingly. Turn the fish from the can into 
a porcelain bowl as soon as opened; air for at least one hour, then reheat 
in a steamer. 



POULTRY AND FISH ^93 



*Salmon Loaf 

1 or 2 c. salmon 2 eggs 

1 c. stale bread crumbs VL* c. milk 

1 tsp. shredded ]>arsley 1 tsp, lemon juice 

1 tsp. salt lA tsp. white pepper 

Remove skin and bones and mince the fish. Then add well beaten eggs, 
crumbs, milk, and seasonings. Mix well. Put into a greased mold and bake 
or steam for one hour. Serve hot with Hollandaise Sauce. 



*Oyster Stew (Class Recipe 1/3) 

3 c. hot milk 1 c. oysters 

2 tbsp. butter salt and pepper 

Heat the milk in a double boiler. Drain the liquid from the oysters and 
strain it through a double thickness of cheesecloth. Put the oysters in a 
small sieve and wash by pouring a half cup of water over them. Carefully 
slip each oyster through the fingers and remove all bits of shell. Heat the 
oysters in the strained liquid until the edges curl. Remove the scum and add 
the liquid and oysters to the hot milk. Then add the butter and seasoning. 
Serve immediately. Pass crackers that have been reheated to make them 
crisp. 

Utilizing Left-over Fish. Fish can be kept only a short 
time, so it is well to cook it in quantities sufficient for one meal. 
If, however, any remains it may be used at the succeeding meal 
as creamed fish, fishballs, or croquettes. Croquettes may be 
browned in a very quick oven instead of being fried. For 
creamed fish, pick the fish into bits with a silver fork. Have 
a cup of moderately thick white sauce ready in a double boiler ; 
add to it one cup of fish, and steam until thoroughly heated. 
Season and serve in a potato border. 

For fishballs use two-thirds as much hot creamed potato, well 
seasoned, as fish. Form into balls, dip in fine white crumbs, 
then in egg, and again in crumbs. Lay on a buttered sheet and 
brown in a hot oven. Remove from the oven, brush the top 
with butter, and serve while hot. 



194 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

Where are the great fisheries of this country? How could the fish 
supply be protected and increased? Where is your fish supply obtained? 
Are the fish in your locality salt or fresh water fish? Make a list of the 
fish in your market, noting the points by which they may be recognized, 
and the price per pound. Which variety is of the best quality? How does 
it compare with beef in price and food value? 

What points should be considered in selecting fish? How can one judge 
of the freshness of fish? What precautions should be observed in buying 
oysters ? 

Do you use canned fish? Give reasons for their use or avoidance. Is 
the canned fish cheaper than fresh fish or meat? Where is the canned fish 
that is used in this country prepared for market? 

In what important points does fish cookery differ from that of meat 
cookery? What method of cooking should be used for a highly flavored fish? 
For a large solid fish? Which is easier, frying fish or broiling it under a 
gas flame? When is fish done? What sauce may be used with broiled fish? 



Supplementary Eecipes 



Panned Broiled Chicken (p. 358) 
Broiled Chicken (p. 358) 
Chicken Pie (p. 358) 
Maryland Chicken (p. 359) 
Chicken with Eice (p. 359) 
Oyster Stuffing (p. 378) 
Chestnut Stuffing (p. 378) 



Broiled Pompano (p. 365) 
Fried Fish (p. 365) 
Broiled Salt Mackerel (p. 365) 
*Scalloped Oysters (p. 373) 
Salmon Salad (p. 365) 
Broiled Oysters (p. 372) 
Oyster Cocktail (p. 373) 



CHAPTER XIII 

BREADS AND LEAVENING AGENTS 

Bread has been called the staff of life because it is eaten at 
almost ever}^ meal. Good bread is a very valuable part of the 
diet. The principal grains used for bread in this country are 
wheat, corn, and some rye. When made of these grains bread con- 
tains some of all the food elements, but as it is particularly rich 
in starch it is eaten with fat in the form of butter, gravy, or 
milk. Since it does not contain all the tissue building foods 
needed, meat, eggs, or cheese are also used with it. More nutri- 
ment is obtained for a given sum in good bread than in any 
other food. 

Bread was one of the first cooked foods eaten by man. The 
savage soon learned to parch grain for food and a little later 
ground it and mixed it with water, then baked it on a hot stone 
or before the fire. The tortilla of the Mexicans is made in this 
way ; the hoe cake of the South is another of these simple breads. 
In Puritan days the journey-cake, as it was called, was made in 
this manner and was carried by the pioneers on their expeditions. 
The term Johnny-cake is a corruption of journey-cake. 

Bread may be divided into two great classes — leavened and 
unleavened bread. The word leavened means lightened. 

Why Bread Is Leavened. Bread is lightened to make it 
porous so that it will be more thoroughly baked, and so that the 
digestive juices may reach it. A dense, heavy bread gets very 
hard and dry while being thoroughly cooked and is not palatable. 
It is leavened or lightened by a gas (carbon dioxide, produced 
by the growth of the yeast plant), which is formed by baking 
powder, or by soda and some acid, and by air incorporated by 
beating, or by steam. 

195 



196 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

BAKING POWDEE AND OTHER LEAVENING AGENTS 

Experiment I. Stir one-fourth teaspoonful of a cream of tartar baking 
powder into one-fourth glass of cold water. Note the fine bubbles that 
result. These are gas bubbles formed by substances in the baking powder 
that unite when they are moistened and give off a gas. 

Experiment II. Repeat Experiment 1, using hot water. In which glass 
did the bubbles form more quickly? The ingredients of the baking powder 
do not dissolve as quickly in cold water as in warm. This is a great help 
in mixing baking powder breads as the gas is not all formed before the 
bread is put into the oven. 

Experiment III. Put a tablespoonful of vinegar into a glass and add 
one-fourth teaspoonful of soda. What happens? 

Experiment IV. To one-half cup of thick sour milk add one-fourth 
teaspoonful of soda. Stir well and note the result. 

In all of the experiments a gas was formed. In Experiment 
III, where vinegar and soda were used, the gas passed off so 
rapidly that it could not be conveniently used in making bread. 
What two substances were found in each experiment ? 

Baking powder is made of soda, cream of tartar, and corn- 
starch. The cornstarch has nothing to do with the forming of 
gas, as could be proved by mixing cornstarch and soda and wet- 
ting it. The cornstarch is added to keep the soda and cream of 
tartar from uniting before it is to be used. Cream of tartar is 
an acid obtained from the crystals formed on the sides of wine 
casks, and has a sour taste. (From what is wine made?) The 
milk used in the experiment was sour and so was the 
vinegar. In each mixture we had soda, which is a 
mineral obtained usually from common ,salt. The soda 
gives off carbon dioxide when moistened and heated, or 
when mixed with an acid. An acid is used with it to destroy 
the taste. From this it is concluded that when soda and an acid 
are mixed and moistened a gas is produced. This gas is known 
as carbonic acid gas or carbon dioxide. What has been learned 
about this gas in the physiology lesson ? When the gas is formed 
in bread it attempts to escape and in doing so it lifts the dough 
and lightens it. 



BEEADS AND LEAVENING AGENTS 197 

Experiment V. Add one-fourth teaspoonful of soda to one tablespoon- 
ful of sour milk in a test tube. Stir, and as it effervesces bring the mouth 
of a test tube containing the lime-water near the first tube. What is the 
result 1 

Experiment VI. Heat the mixture in Experiment I m a test tube or 
small saucepan. When it effervesces briskly, hold a lighted match close 
over it. What is the result? 

Carbon dioxide turns lime-water milky and extinguishes a 
flame. A sour substance like cream of tartar, sour milk, or 
vinegar is called an acid. 

A substance like soda is called a carbonate. Soda is also 
called an alkali. 

There are some interesting experiments by which acids 
or alkalies can be determined. For this purpose paper that 
has been colored by a vegetable color is used. This is called 
litmus paper. 

Experiment VII. Moisten a piece of blue litmus paper with vinegar. 
Is there any change? Try a piece of red. What is the result? Acids turn 
blue litmus red. 

Experiment VIII. Dissolve one-half teaspoonful of soda in one-half 
glass of water. Test with both red and blue litmus paper. What is the 
result? Alkalies turn red litmus hlue. 

Experiment TX, Test the baking powder solutions in Experiments I 
and II. Is there a change? In a good baking powder the acid and the soda 
exactly balance each other and the paper shows neither acid nor alkali. 
Such a mixture is said to be neutral. 

Experiment X. Test the vinegar and soda solution with litmus paper. 
Add more soda or vinegar, as indicated by the change in the litmus paper, 
until the mixture is neutral. 

Experiment XI. Test the sour milk and soda solution with litmus 
paper. What is the result? 

When sour milk and soda are used for bread, care must be taken that 
the acid and alkali are just balanced. Thick sour milk usually needs one 
teaspoonful of soda for two cups of milk. If the milk is thin, that is, 
not yet clabbered or formed into curd, less soda will be needed, as it is not 
so acid as when clabbered. 

Experiment XII. Test sugar-house molasses with litmus paper. Is it 
acid or alkali? Molasses from a fresh can just opened has little acid. 



198 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Experiment XIII. To one-fourth cujd of sugar-house molasses add one- 
fourth teaspoonful of soda dissolved in a tablespoonful of hot water. Stir 
well and note the result. Test with litmus paper. Is it acid, alkali, or 
neutral 1 

Experiment XIV. Test corn syrup with litmus paper. What is the 
result? 

Experiment XV. Add soda solution as in Experiment XIII to the 
same quantity of corn syrup. What is the result? Judging by this could 
corn syrup be substituted for molasses in gingerbread recipe? What in- 
gredient would have to be reduced in amount if corn syrup were used? 
Would the gingerbread be light enough without baking powder if corn 
syrup were substituted for molasses? 

Kinds of Baking Powders. There are a number of baking 
powders in the market. They are sold under different names, 
but all may be classified as cream of tartar, acid phosphate, 
or alum powders. 

Phosphate baking powder is made of calcium acid phos- 
phate and soda with cornstarch. The cornstarch is generally 
used in greater ciuantities in phosphate baking powder than it 
is in cream of tartar powders. Phosphate baking powder does 
not keep well and should be purchased in small quantities. The 
alum powders contain soda, cornstarch, some form of alum, 
and various other ingredients. Repeat Experiment I, boil, and 
test for starch. (See Experiment I, page 4o.) 

What does the pure food law say about the kind of baking powders that 
may be sold? Read the label on your baking i:)OAvder and see what its ingre- 
dients are. What are the ingredients of cream of tartar baking powder? 
Name some well-known cream of tartar baking powder. What kind do 
you use? 

The Residue from Baking Powders. After the gas escapes 
from baking powder there is left a solid substance that may be 
injurious. Alum powders leave mineral salts that are considered 
very harmful. The solids from other baking powders are not 
injurious if used in moderate quantities. Buy a good quality 
of baking powder, in small quantities, as it loses its gas if kept 
long. Always keep it tightly covered. 



BREADS AND LEAVENING AGENTS 199 

If bread in which the acid does not balance the soda is used, 
the excess soda may interfere with the digestive juices. Soda 
and sour milk are far cheaper than baking powder, and if care- 
fully used are not any more harmful. 

Home Made Baking Powder. Baking powder can be made 
at home very successfully. Buy pure cream of tartar and 
bicarbonate of soda from a reliable druggist. 

y2 ib. cream of tartar 3 oz. cornstarch 

1/4 lb. bicarbonate of soda 

Sift the soda and cornstarch together very thoroughly. Then shake in 
a covered glass jar until well mixed. Add the cream of tartar and shake 
well. Keep tightly covered. Use one teaspoonful to a cup of flour 
in biscuit and other quick breads. Use less in cakes where many eggs are 
used. For every egg added, deduct V2 teaspoonful of baking powder. 



QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

How many ounces of baking powder are made by the recipe given above? 
What did it cost? What is the price of a cream of tartar baking powder? 
How much is saved by mixing it at home? What per cent is saved? What 
is the price of a pure phosphate baking powder? What is the cost of some 
alum baking powder sold in your market? Note the various names given 
for alum on the labels of cheap baking powders. Is it economy to save 
money by using for food any substance that may be injurious? 



QUICK BREADS 

Breads lightened by other means than yeast are sometimes 
called quick breads because of the short time needed for making 
and cooking them. As soft warm breads are usually imperfectly 
masticated, they should not be eaten frequently. Soda, either in 
baking powder where it may be combined with other minerals, 
or used with sour milk, leaves a residue that may be injurious. 
For these reasons it is much better to use w^ell made yeast bread 
for your principal bread, and to eat the quick breads only occa- 
sionally. 



200 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Proportion of Liquid to Flour in Batters and Doughs. 

Quick breads are sometimes grouped as batters and doughs, 
according to their consistency or stiffness. 

Pour batter 1 part liquid to 1 to 1% of flour 

Drop batter 1 part liquid to 2 to 2i/^ of flour 

8oft dough 1 part liquid to 3 to 3^2 of flour 

Stiff dough 1 part liquid to 4 or more of flour 

Experiment XVI. Measure a cup of flour. Sift and measure another 
cup. Compare bulk. Always sift flour before measuring, then sift again 
(one or more times) to mix dry ingredients. 

Eggs as a Leavening Agent. A few quick breads do not 
depend on baking powder or its equivalent soda and an acid for 
a leaven, but are made light by the air and confined steam. 
Eggs are used for these breads, because a film of egg will hold 
the dough up long enough for it to be cooked. In popovers or 
cream puffs a hollow shell is desired, so the whole^egg is beaten 
into the mixture. Where a spongy structure is required, as in 
sponge cake or angel cake, the whites are beaten separately and 
very thoroughly. 

Popovers (Class Kecipe y2) 

Popovers and griddle cakes are typical of thin batters. 

1 c. flour Mr tsp. salt 

1 c. milk ' 1 or 2 eggs 

Sift and mix flour and salt. Mix the eggs and milk and add to the flour 
gradually. Beat with a dover egg beater. Turn the mixture into very 
hot greased gem i)ans or earthen cups, and put them into a very hot 
oven (about 475° F.). Keep the door closed for ten minutes. If they 
are browning at the end of this time reduce the heat very slightly. They 
should be well puffed and a golden brown at the end of thirty minutes. 
Then the heat may be reduced, or the oven door opened, to dry the rim of 
dough around the sides. About forty-five minutes is required for cook- 
ing. Serve as muffins or with a pudding sauce for dessert. Is the popover 
mixture a drop or a pour batter? What is the proportion of flour to liquid? 
Why is the egg beaten directly into the batter for popovers? (Experi- 
ment II.) Divide the recipe and mix one-half without beating; beat the 
other according to directions. Compare the product after baking. 



BREADS AND LEAVENING AGENTS 201 

Griddle Cakes 
(Eeview Experiments IV, V, and XI) 

Griddle cakes are not easily digested as they contain much 
raw starch, are too soft for thorough mastication, and are usually 
so greasy that they resemble fried foods. 

Sour Milk Griddle Cakes 

2 e. flour 1 tsp. soda 

1/^ tsp, salt 2 c. sour milk 

1 egg 2 tbsp. melted butter 

Sift dry ingredients together and beat egg until light. Mix egg with 
one cup of milk, then add the flour mixture Beat thoroughly. Add 
enough more milk to make a batter like thick cream. Then add the butter. 

Use a large griddle uniformly heated. Grease with a bit of fat on a 
fork or with a pastry brush with very little fat. Beat the mixture well 
just before putting on the cakes. Drop batter from the tip of a spoon, 
making the cakes round and of uniform size. When full of fine bubbles, 
but while still moist turn with a spatula or bread knife. If any part of the 
batter spatters out push it up to the cake so the edges will be smooth. 
When the lower side is brown serve immediately. 

Sweet Milk Griddle Cakes 

For sweet milk griddle cakes use the same proportions as in thp recipe 
above, adding one tabiespoonful of sugar, and using three teaspoonfuls of 
baking powder in place of soda. 

What kind of batter is used for the griddle cake? Are griddle cakes 
easily digested? Are they easy to prepare? If the housekeeper cooks could 
she serve griddle cakes and preside over her table? 

Muffins and Biscuit 

As all breads contain starch they must be thoroughly cooked. 
Biscuits and muffins made small and thin may be well cooked in 
a short time. 

Hand Test for Oven. For muffins the oven should be so 
hot that the hand cannot ])e held in it longer than the time 
required to count twelve or fifteen. For biscuit, count ten or 
twelve, counting as the clock ticks. The oven should be hot 
enough so that a piece of white paper put into it, with the door 



202 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

closed, becomes a golden brown in five minutes. If a thermome- 
ter is available, test oven at 400° F., 425° ¥., 450° F., 475° F., 
and 500° F. Heat strips of white paper at these temperatures 
and paste in back of book for reference. 

Wood or Coal Stove. Keep your stove free from soot above 
and below the oven. Remove the ashes before you begin to bake. 
For quick breads use small sticks of dry wood or a light coal 
fire. If large wood is used the oven will be slow to heat and 
there will be much fire left when the baking is finished. 

Build the fire before measuring the ingredients, and do not 
mix the bread until the oven is almost hot enough for baking. 
If the oven heats too fast at the bottom put an asbestos mat in it. 

Put the bread on the bottom of the oven until it is light, then 
place it on the top shelf to brown. 

Gas Stove. Heat the oven for ten minutes with both burn- 
ers. Put the biscuit on the upper shelf and bake for five minutes, 
then turn the gas low and cook from five to seven minutes longer. 
For muffins heat the oven ten minutes before putting in the 
muffins arid cook for about eight minutes before turning the gas 
low. Then cook for another eight minutes. 

If the oven burns the bottom of the bread, slip an asbestos 
mat under the pan a few minutes after putting it in, but not 
before the bread begins to rise. If the bread does not brown 
well on top it must be browned under the flame after it has 
cooked the required length of time. Gas pressure varies. Ex- 
periment with your stove until you find the best way of 
regulating it. 

The Fireless Cooker. Put the radiators over the gas flame 
for about fifteen minutes. Test by putting a little flour on the 
stone ; if it turns to a golden brown the heat is right for biscuit 
or muffins ; if it burns, the stone is too hot and must be cooled. 
Put one radiator in the cooker, place the biscuit in the basket 
over it, put another radiator over it, on the rack, and close the 
cooker. The biscuit will be ready in ten minutes if the radiators 
were properly heated. If there are three radiators and two 
racks, two pans of biscuit may be cooked at once. 



BEEADS AND LEAVENING AGENTS 203 

Pans for Quick Breads. Thin shallow aluminum muffin pans 
are best for cooking quick breads. Tin is not durable, and 
enameled ware gives a hard crust at the bottom and sides. For 
biscuit use flat aluminum or sheet steel baking sheets, or 
flat pans. 

Preparing the Pans. Pans for muffins and butter cakes 
require greasing. "When a pan is to be greased, warm either the 
pan or the fat. Then grease lightly with a clean pastry brush 
or a piece of kitchen paper. Use lard, beef drippings, or other 
unsalted fat for greasing. Never use butter as it burns easily 
and causes the bread to stick. 

Making Muffins. Review directions for baking. Repeat 
Experiments I and II and note results. In which experiment 
was the more gas found ? Why do muffins rise ? Should muffins 
be mixed quickly or slowly ? 

The gas swells or expands when heated, but if the oven is 
not hot enough to bake quickly the gas bubbles run together and 
the bread becomes coarse in texture and may fall. If the oven 
is too hot, a crust forms before the bread can rise. The dough 
inside rises, when heated, and forms a peak in the center. Be 
sure to remember the two following points when using baking 
powder in bread: (1) mix the bread quickly, (2) put it immedi- 
ately into a hot oven. 

* Light Muffins (Class Recipe Vs) 

Muffins are not easy to digest as they contain fat, and are so soft that 
they are apt to be imperfectly masticated. 

3 c. flour 1 tsp. salt 

2 tsp. sugar 4 tsp. baking powder 
l^/j c. sweet milk 1 egg 

3 tbsp. butter or lard (or one-half each) 

Have the oven nearly ready and the pans greased before you begin to 
mix the batter. 

Sift the flour, salt, sugar, and baking powder together. Beat the egg 
slightly and add it to the milk. Then stir tlie milk into the flour. Mix it 
well but do not beat or stir very long. (Quick breads made of flour be- 
come tough if beaten or stirred too much.) Add the melted butter. As 



204 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

soon as it is mixed pour the muffin pans two-thirds full. (If the pans are 
too full the mixture will run over when it begins to heat.) Brush the top 
with melted butter and bake. 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

Give directions for preparing muffin pans. What kind of pan is used 
for muffins i Why? How is the oven heated for muffins? How long are 
they baked? Why are muffins mixed quickly? Why is a hot oven needed 
for muffins? What causes muffins to come to a peak when baking? What 
causes them to run over the edge of the pan? What makes them coarse 
in texture? Find the cost of one dozen muffins. 

What food substances are found in muffins? How could the recipe be 
changed so as to make a richer muffin? A plainer one? What should be 
served with muffins to form a nourishing meal? Why do all breads need 
thorough cooking? Why must breads be eaten slowly and chewed well? 

* Cornmeal Muffins (Class Recipe Ve) 

3 c. sifted cornmeal 6 tsp. baking powder 

1 tsp. salt ^ e. sweet milk 

1 egg 2 tbsp. melted butter 

Proceed as for light muffins. As cornmeal has no gluten the gas escapes 
rapidly, so work very quickly. Have the oven slightly hotter than for liglit 
muffins. Bake for twenty-live minutes or longer, 

* Boston Brown Bread 

1 c. cornmeal 1 c. rye or whole wheat Hour 

1 c. Graham flour IV^ tsp. soda 

1 tsp. salt % c. molasses 

2 c. sour milk 

One and one-half cup sweet milk or water may be used with 2 teaspoon- 
fuls baking powder and one-half teaspoonful soda. 

Sift the Graham flour (add one-half of the bran from the sifter to the 
flour), and measure and add it to the other dry ingredients which have 
been sifted together. Mix as for muffins, stirring until perfectly smooth, 
and then turn into well greased molds, filling them two-thirds full. Grease 
the lids of the molds and cover closely. 

Steaming the Bread. Place the molds on a rack in a kettle that can 
be closely covered and pour in enough l)oiling water to reach half way up 
the sides of the molds. Cover the kettle and keep boiling for three or four 
hours. (Do not let the water stop boiling or get too low. Eeplenish with 



BREADS AND LEAVENING AGENTS 



205 



boiling watci.) Remove tlie lid and bake bread in a moderate oven for fif- 
teen minutes. Turn the bread from the mold while it is still warm. Serve 
cold, cut in thin ?lices. It is delicious Avhei) toasted. One pound baking 
powder tins make good molds, or small lard pails may be used. The bread 
made with water is to be preferred for sandwiches. Less molasses may be 
used if a sweet taste is objectionable; in this case reduce the quantity of 
soda and add a little water. Why is soda lessened if sweet milk or water 
is used? If corn syrup is substituted for molasses could tlie quantity of 
soda herein given be used? (Expeiiment XIV.) 

Making Biscuit. Biscuits are more difficvilt to make than 
muffins because the dough must be handled. If the dough is 
very stiff the biscuit Avill not 
be light and tender. If too 
jnuch flour is added the bis- 
cuit will be dry and hard. 
Some kinds of flour take 
more water or milk than 
others, so use only enough 
liquid to make a dough of the 
right stiffness, even if it is not all that the recipe calls for. 

Eepeat Experiments II and III. AVby do biscuits rise? 




BISCUITS 



* Biscuits (Class Recipe) 

Review directions for measuring. 

Have all ingredients cold; attend to oven according to directions; take 
out biscuit pan, dredge-box, rolling-pin, and cutter; then wash the hands 
very carefully. 



1 c. flour 2 tsp. baking powder 

\i tsp. salt 7s c. milk or water 

1 tbsp. fat (lard, butter, or other cooking fat) 

Sift the Hour before measuring. Add the baking powder and salt, and 
sift twice. Put in the fat, which should be very cold. With two knives cut 
it into the tlour until it looks granular, like meal. Never rub the fat ivith 
the hands or the biscuit will not be flaky. (It is not sanitary to put the 
hands in food any more than is necessary; moreover, they will warm the 
dough.) 



206 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Pour in a little of the milk, mix with a knife, then pnsh the dough 
to one side and mix another pai't. When all is moistened turn on to a 
lightly floured board. If it does not turn out easily scrape it with a knife 
or spatula. (If the proper proportions of liquid and flour have been used 
the dough will not stick to the bowl.) Toss on the board with the spatula 
until lightly coated with flour and pat for one minute. Flour your rolling- 
pin a little and roll the dough lightly, from the center, into a sheet three- 
fourths of an inch thick. Cut with a small floured cutter. Lay on a shallow 
ungreased pan or baking sheet. Brush the top with milk or cream and 
bake according to directions. Judge your biscuit according to the score 
card given for bread on page 216. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Give directions for mixing biscuit. Why is it best to have the ingredi- 
ents cold? How much liquid should be used? What effect has much knead- 
ing on biscuit? Why not use the hands for the whole process of biscuit 
making? How thick should the dough be rolled? Why are small, thin 
biscuits more digestible than large thick ones? What kind of baking pan 
should be used for biscuits ? Tell how to bake biscuits in your stove. Are the 
directions given here suitable for your stove? What ingredients in biscuits 
are apt to make them indigestible? Should biscuits be served to invalids? 
What food elements are found in biscuit? Why does fat interfere with the 
digestion of starches? (See page 55.) 

How many biscuits can be made from a quart of flour? What is the cost? 

Supplementary Becipes 

Yorkshire Pudding (p. 347) Emergency Biscuit (p. 348) 

*Hot Water Corn Bread (p. 347) Soda Biscuit (p. 348) 

Waffles (p. 347) Whole Wheat Biscuit rp 349) 

^Sour Milk Corn Bread (p. 348) Beaten Biscuit (p. 349) 

Dumplings for Meat Stew (p. 348) Dainty Biscuit (p. 349) 



CHAPTER XIV 



BREADS (Continued). YEAST BREAD 



"Wheat is the most important of our bread stuffs. See geog- 
raphy for location of wheat fiekls and milling* centers. Bring 
specimens of wheat, flour, 
bran, and rye flour. 

Structure. The wheat 
grain is a small oval seed of 
a brownish yellow color. It 
has a hard outer covering, 
known as the husk, which is 
removed when the grain is 
threshed. Underneath this 
are fine layers of bran to 
which some starch and gluten 
adhere. Underneath these 
lie the gluten or protein mat- 
ter. Next to this, but close- 
ly connected with it, are the 
starch cells. The germ, which 
is rich in oil, lies at one 
end. (See A in figure.) 

Composition. (See table, 
page 116, for per cent compo- 
sition. ) Wheat is particularly 
valuable in the making of 
yeast bread because of its 
gluten content, which permits the dough to stretch and retain 
the gas. 

207 




DIAGRAM OF GRAIN OF WHEAT 



A. GERM 

B. GLUTEN CELLS 

C. STARCH CELLS 

D. INTERIOR COAT 

OF BUAN 



E. TESTA (COLORING 

MATTER OF BRAN » 

F. INNER RIND 
O. OtTTER RIND 
H. HL'SK 



208 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

FLOUE 

Graham Flour. In tlie making of Graham flour the whole 
grain is ground and the hran retained. Some poor grades of 
Graham flour are made of low grade white flour with a little 
bran added. Graham flour is valuable for those with a tendency 
to constipation, as it stimulates peristalsis. 

Whole Wheat Floiir. This is made from wheat from which 
two coverings of bran have been removed ; it is darker than 
ordinary white flour. It, too, is stimulating to peristalsis, owing 
to its oil and bran. As it has a high mineral content, bread made 
of whole wheat flour should be used if the diet is lacking in milk, 
fruit, and vegetables. 

White Flour. In making white flour all the bran and the 
germ have been removed. 

Pastry Flour. A high grade of white flour made from 
winter or soft wheat is known as pastry flour. 

Rye Flour. Eye, like wheat, is used for flour. It is darker 
in color than wheat flour. Owing to the difference in the quality 
of its gluten it does not yield a loaf of the same lightness as does 
the wheat flour. 

« 

Experiment I. Examine and compare samples of all these flours. Sift 
and note the amount of waste material in each. What proportion of each 
passed through the sieve? How does the proportion differ? 

Bleached Flour. Flour is bleached so that inferior grades 
may have the appearance of the best quality. In the bleaching 
process a chemical (nitrogen peroxide gas) is used, which leaves 
a trace in the flour. In buying flour see that the label states 
that it is unbleached. A dead whiteness may be due to bleach- 
ing, while a dark colored, slaty, or gray flour is poor. What 
does your pure food law say about bleached flour ? 

Selection of Flour. Wheat is classified as spring or liard 
wheat, and winter or soft wheat. Certain varieties of winter 
wheat, however, such as the Turkey Red wheat of Kansas, are 
known as hard wlieats. Hard wheats yield a creamy, granular 
flour, rich in gluten, while soft wheats yield a white, smooth, starchy 
flour. The average flour is a blend of hard and soft wheat. 



YEAST BREAD 209 

Experiment IT. Granulation and Color of Flovr. — Lny samples of dif- 
ferent Hour cii u siieet of glass, arranging them in order of color. Compare 
these colors. How do tlie diffeiences correspond with the quality of the 
iloiir? Examine the lior.r with a microscope, noting any coarse or dark- 
colored particles of bran or dust. Rub some of the flour between the thumb 
and forefinger. Note if any granular particles can be detected. Can the 
texture be determined by the appearance? 

The odor is a most important point in selecting flonr. If it 
is at 1,11 sour the flour is spoiled ; if musty cr rancid do not use 
it, as the mustiness is more apparent after the flour is made into 
bread. 

Qualities of Good Bread Flour. Good bread flour is of a 
creamy white, is quite granular or grainy, and does not hold 
its shape when the hand is opened after the flour has been 
pressed together. It should feel dry rather than moist. The 
quantity of water takon up by the flour is an important point 
- — from sixty to sixty-five per cent of its weight of water should 
be absorbed. 

Pastry Flour. Good pastiy flour is smooth and white and 
holds its shape when pressed in the hand. 

Keeping Flour. Good white flour made from first class 
wheat improves witli age if kept for a few months in a cool, well 
ventilated place. Flour made of poor material cannot be kept. 
If good flour can be procured buy it in quantit}' in the autunni. 
Graham or whole wheat flours do not keep w^ell on account of 
the oil. Keep flour in a cool, dry place. 

Composition of Flour. What food elements are found in 
flour? (See Table, page 116.) Wheat contains a sticky pro- 
tein known as gluten. This varies from a high per cent in fine 
hard wheat to a small per cent in soft wheat. 

ExPERiMEXT III. Review Experiment VIII, page 45. If the gluten is 
dark and stringy tlie flour will not make good bread. What particular 
quality does such flour ])Ossess? Good flour should have at least thirty per 
cent of moist gluten. Bake a part of the washed dough and note a])pearance. 
What are the properties of gluten ? Test Graham and whole wheat flour in 
the same way. 

Experiment IV. Review Experiment III. Wash dough in K> c. water, 
boil water, and test for starch. See Experiment I, page 4."i. 



210 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

COKNMEAL 

Cornineal is an important breadstuff in this country. It 
does not contain gluten and cannot be used for yeast bread. 
Only clean corn free from smut or weevils should be used 
for making meal. It is made by two processes known as the 
new and the old. In the new process a part of the germ is 
removed, and this gives meal of a peculiar flavor, which is poor 
in oil and takes up much liquid. Good cornmeal is a creamy 
white or yellow in color, never gray or dingy. It has a sweet 
pleasant odor and has no trace of mustiness. It grows rancid 
quickly on account of its oil. It must be free from web-like bits, 
as these contain the larvae of insects. Keep it in a clean, dry 
place. Since meal does not keep as well as flour, it should be 
purchased in small quantities. 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

In what part of this country does wheat grow? Where are the great 
milling centers? Where was your flour manufactured? Where was the 
wheat grown? Tell what you can of the manufacture of flour. 

Why is wheat so well adapted to bread making? What is Graham flour? 
Whole wheat flour? What is their special value? What part of the grain 
is used in white flour? What is the difference between spring and winter 
wheat? Which would make the best bread flour? Why are blended wheats 
used for flour? Compare samples of different flours as to color, texture, 
odor, and the way in which they hold their shape when pressed in the hand. 
What is the composition of flour? How can the starch be separated from 
flour? The gluten? How should flour be kept? Would you buy a quantity 
of flour at one time? 

Why cannot cornmeal be used for yeast bread? How may cornmeal 
be judged? What is the difference between the new and the old process 
meal? 

YEAST 

The best and most healthful bread is lightened with yeast. 
Yeast is a tiny plant, so small that it cannot be seen with the 
naked eye. It reproduces itself by budding as shown in the pic- 
ture of yeast cells ; that is, new cells form on the old ones, or it 



YEAST BREAD 



211 






^ ^ -^0 



i I 









=^ t5 



f>.. 






^^W^f^© 



YEAST CELLS 



produces spores which may be compared to seeds. (See page 
108.) When it is planted in starchy or sugary substances it 
grows very fast and forms a gas from the air and from some of 
the substances in which it grows. This is the same gas tliat was 
formed by the baking powder, carbon dioxide. The gas does not 
form as quickly in the yeast dough as 
it does in the baking powder bread, 
because several hours are needed for 
the growth of the yeast plant. In a 
mixture of flour and water and yeast 
kept at a temperature of from 70° 
to 80° F. a part of the starch of the 
flour is changed to sugar. This sugar 
then changes to alcohol and carbon 
dioxide, the gas that causes bread to 
rise. If the rising process is carried on 
too long so that other bacteria have a 
chance to grow, or, if owing to careless handling many other bac- 
teria enter, the alcohol may be changed into an acid and the 
bread may become sour. 

The yeast plant needs food, oxygen, warmth, and moisture 
just as any other plant does. The flour and sugar are its food ; 
the water or milk gives moisture ; while the air beaten or kneaded 
in furnishes it oxygen. The dough must be kept warm. If all 
these things are supplied, and the yeast used is good it will 
grow just as any plant in the garden grows if it has the needed 
soil and climate. Think of the yeast cake as a package of 
tender growing plants and handle it as a box of delicate plants 
should be handled. 

Compressed Yeast. Compressed yeast is made in the large 
distilleries or factories where whiskey is made. Whiskey and 
beer are both made by the fermentation of grains caused by the 
growth of yeast plants. In the distilleries the scum on the top 
of the vats is composed of millions of yeast cells. This scum is 
skimmed off, mixed with cornstarch, and formed into small cakes. 
These cakes are wrapped in tinfoil and kept very cold until they 



212 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

are sent to the housekeeper. The plants do 7iot grow when cold, 
but as soon as tliey become warm tliey begin to grow. Com- 
pressed yeast can be kept very cold for a short time only, as the 
plants die when exposed to cold for a long time. Yeast cannot 
be kept in a warm place because the plants grow, and after grow- 
ing a while the yeast becomes sour and loses its strength. A 
good compressed yeast cake is of a creamy whiteness, free from 
dark spots or streaks, and has a pleasant odor. 

Dry Yeast. A cake of compressed yeast was compared to 
growing plants. Dry yeast may be likened to a package of seed. 
If seeds are planted, more time is needed for their full growth 
than for the growing of young i:)lants. Likewise dry yeast needs 
more time for growth than compressed yeast. It is best to start 
the bread at night so that the seed will have plenty of time to 
grow. A dry yeast cake must be soaked for half an hour before 
it is put into the dough. 

Experiment V. Examine, under the microscope, a group of yeast cells 
grown in a molasses solution as in Experiment II. 

Experiment VI. Dissolve three-fourths of a cake of compressed yeast 
in two cups of water to which one tablespoonful of sugar has been added, 
or use a thin mixture of sugar, water, and flour; or a mixture of molasses 
and water. Divide the mixture into three test tubes or flasks. Expose one 
to freezing temperature. Boil the contents of another tube, then cool and 
set away. Put the third in a warm place (about 90° F.). Dissolve the 
remaining yeast in a test tube half filled with pure water. Let stand for an 
hour, noting changes every fifteen minutes. Compare the results. At what 
temperature was growth most rapid? In what tube or flask was there no 
growth? Test for carbon dioxide, the tubes in which gas formed, with lime- 
water and a burning match. (See Experiments V and VI, page 197.) 
Do not heat the tubes. What can you say of the food and temperature 
required by the yeast plant? Keep tlie tubes in a warm place until the 
second day and then note odor and other conditions. 

The Making of Yeast Bread. All bread recipes are based 
on a certain proportion of liquid to flour, the usual quantity 
being one cup of liquid to three or four of flour. This quantity 
will make one loaf of bread. Winter wheat flour takes up more 
liquid than spring wheat or the blended flours. The quantity 



YEAST BREAD 213 

of shortening or fat used, too, modifies tlie quantity of liquid, 
for shortening acts as a liquid. 

The amount of yeast required varies from one-eighth cake to 
two cakes, depending on the length of time allowed for rising and 
upon the amount of gluten in the flour. With a strong flour, 
that is, one rich in gluten, more yeast may be used, as the dough 
will stand a greater pressure of gas. One-fourth cake to each 
cup of liquid is satisfactory for ordinai-y use. For quick proc- 
ess bread, one-half cake should be used. Too much yeast gives 
a dry and porous loaf that crumbles easily.. Too little yeast 
requires a long time for rising, and the bread may become sour 
because of the growth of other bacteria. 

Sugar is a good food for the yeast plant and from one-half 
to one and one-half teaspoonf uls to one cup of liquid may be used. 
In making sweet breads with a large quantity of sugar it is best 
to use the sponge process and to add most of the sugar at the 
second mixing, as it may ferment in the presence of yeast and 
the bread become sour. 

Salt is apt to retard the rising of bread, if used in large 
quantities. One-half teaspoonful to one cup of liquid is sufficient. 

GENERAL RULES FOR BREAD MAKING 

1. Scald liquids to destroy germs, and in the ease of milk to prevent 
souring in the bread. 

2. Mix hot liquids in a large bowl with sugar, salt, and shortening; 
cool until only lukewarm before adding yeast cake. (Lukewarm water is 
just a little w^armer than the hand.) Be very careful in making yeast bread 
not to use anytliing hot about the yeast as the little plants are killed if the 
dough gets too hot. 

3. Rub compressed yeast to a paste in lukewarm water. Soak dry yeast 
one-half hour in lukewarm water. 

4. Have Hour at temperature of about 70° F. If too cold the bread will 
rise slowly. Do not Ic^i it very hot if it must be warmed. 

5. Warm bread pans, board, and rolling-pin (in cold weather), and mix 
bread in a warm room. 

6. Beat batter for five minutes before it is very thick ; \\i this way more 
air is beaten in and the dough will be light. 

7. Put bread to rise in a warm place; fi temperature of 78° F. is best 
for tbe growth of the yeast pl^nt. 



214 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

8. Knead bread thoroughly after each rising so that gas bubbles will be 
evenly distributed. Study kneading directions carefully. 

9. Always brush the top of dough and loaves with melted fat or luke- 
warm water to prevent a crust from forming before the bread rises. 

Sponge and Short Processes. Bread may be made by what 
is known as the sponge process. A thin batter or sponge is first 
made as in Grilled Muffins. When this is light, enough flour to 
make a dough is added. After kneading it is left to rise, then 
molded into loaves, and these, when light, are baked. This 
method requires more time as the bread rises three times, but 
the process usually gives a fine grain. 

In the short process all the flour is added in the beginning 

as in the recipe for Yeast Bread. This requires much less time 

than the sponge process, and if thoroughly kneaded a good grain 

is obtained. 

Grilled Muffins (Sponge Process) 

% c. scalded milk, cooled till lukewarm 1 tbsp. sugar 

% tbsp. butter Vs tsp. salt 

1^ cake yeast ^ c. Hour 

Put the yeast cake in a cup and pour two tablespoonfuls of the milk 
on it. Let stand for a few minutes, then stir to a smooth paste. Put the 
scalded milk, sugar, salt, and shortening into a small mixing bowl. Stir 
well and add the yeast, paste, and flour. (Put r.ll the flour in at once.) 
Beat well for five minutes and put in a warm place. When light, prepare 
a griddle as for cakes. Lay small greased muflin rings on it, and when 
hot fill half full of the muffin mixture. Cook over a moderate heat until 
the dough is light and well browned on the under side; then turn the 
muffins and ring with a si)atula or broad knife-blade and brown the other 
side. This method may be used where no oven is available, but the muf- 
fins are more digestible if cooked in an oven. One tablespoonful of beaten 
c^g will improve the muffins. These muffins should be eaten sparingly, as 
they are no more digestible than griddle cakes, 

* Bread (Short Process — Class Recipe 1/4) 

1 c. scalded milk (2 c. milk if no 2 tbsp. boiled water cooled to hike- 

water is used) warm 

1 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. sugar 

1 tl)sp. butter or lard % to 11/2 yeast cakes 

(i to 8 c. flour (depending on time for rising) 

1 c, boiling water 



YEAST BREAD 215 

This makes two loaves. Two groups of pupils may use one pan for 
baking, each putting in a small loaf. If dry yeast is used, start it at home 
at night; if compressed yeast is used, start in the morning, unless it is to 
be used very early, then use less than the given quantity of yeast and start 
it at night. 

Proceed as for Grilled Muffins adding half the flour. After beating add 
enough flour to make a stiff dough. Scrape the dough from the bowl on to 
a lightly floured board and knead thoroughly. Do not work in too much 
Hour. 

To Knead Bread. Flour the hands lightly and sprinkle a 
little flour on the dough. Use the mound of the hand at the back 
of the palm for kneading. Do not put the fingers into the dough. 
Pull the bread toward you, then push it back. Work lightly; 
do not press too hard or a great deal of flour will be taken up. 
Knead until the dough feels like velvet and comes back quickly 
when pressed with the finger. Bread is kneaded to incorporate 
air and to stretch the gluten of the flour so that the grain of the 
loaf will be fine. 

Putting Bread to Rise. Moisten a large mixing bowl wdth 
warm water, place the ball of dough in it, brush the top with 
lukewarm water, and put the bowl in a pan of warm (not hot) 
water. Cover with a clean cloth and a pan ; put it in a warm 
place where no cold air can reach it until it rises to twice the 
size it was originall}^ Add a little hot water to the pan when 
necessary to keep it warm. 

Forming into Loaves. When the bread is well risen, knead 
very thoroughly to distribute gas bubbles. (Be careful not to 
work in much flour.) Cut off a piece of suitable size and form 
into a loaf, place it in a greased pan, cover, and let rise in a 
warm place until it has doubled its bulk. Bake as directed 
on following page. 

Experiment VII. Knead a piece of biscuit dough as directed for Yeast 
Bread. Bake and note quality. Could baking powder be used for gas in 
kneaded bread? Explain answer. Why can yeast be so used? 

Bread Pans. Small pans that hold a single loaf are best 
for bread as they give a greater proportion of crust. A pan 



216 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

7i/^x3%x2% inches gives a very good loaf. Sheet iron or alu- 
minum pans with round corners are to be preferred. 

Baking Bread. Cook yeast loaves in a moderately hot oven ; 
the heat may be slightly reduced after the bread begins to brown. 
Bake small loaves for fifty minutes and large loaves longer. 
The bread should begin to brown in fifteen or twenty minutes 
from the time that it is put into the oven. When it is done the 
loaf will seem light and no steam will come from it. 

To bake loaves, heat the gas oven with both burners for five 
minutes before putting in the bread. Cook for ten minutes and 
then turn off one burner. Turn off the heat entirely ten minutes 
before the biv^ad is done. When using a wood or coal range put 
the bread in a moderately hot oven and reduce the heat after it 
is well risen and partly browned. 

For rolls, heat a gas oven for eight minutes. Put in the rolls 
and turn off one burner after the rolls are slightly browned. 
Cook for the last five minutes with the heat off. In a wood or 
coal oven proceed as for bread, having the oven slightly hotter. 

Good Bread. Flavor and texture are the tw^o important 
points in grading bread. The loaf should be of pleasing shape 
and should be light, with a rich, crisp, brown crust. The crumb 
should be firm, tender, and fine grained. It should have a rich 
nutty taste with no trace of acid or moisture. Under-cooked 
bread will cause indigestion. 

SCALE FOR GRADING BREAD* 

riavor 35 

Lightness 15 

Grain and texture 20 

Crust — color, depth, texture 10 

Crum^D — color, moisture, elasticity 10 

Shape and size 10 

Keeping Bread. As soon as bread is taken out of the oven 
lay it on a wire rack to cool and protect it from dust with a clean 
thin cloth. After the bread is cold put it away in a metal bread 
box that has perforations to admit air. Keep your bread bo^ 

*Froni Bulletin of Upivorsity of Illinois, hy Tsnbel Bevier, 



YEAST BREAD 



217 



very clean. Scald it aud dry thoroughly before putting in a 
fresh batch of bread. 

* Parker House Rolls 

(Rolls are to be preferred to loaves in the lesson on account of time 
needed in making.) 

*Use one-fourth the bread recipe, but instead of molding into loaves 
loll like biscuit to half an inch in thickness. Cut with a large biscuit 
cutter and crease across the center 
of each roll vfith tl:e back of a 
•knife-blade. Brush one-half with 
a very little melted butter, and 
fold over at the crease. Brush the 
top with butter and lay the rolls 
in a greased biscuit pan. Press 
your thumb in the center of each 

roll on the folded side so as to 

J? 4. ^-P ^,.«c^^„f wi.^» I'ARKER HOUSE ROLLS 

form a sort or crescent. \V hen 

light bake for twenty-five minutes in an oven not quite as hot as that 

for biscuit. 

Caution. The rolls will pop open if put to rise in a very warm place 

or if put in too hot an oven. 

* Graham Bread 




(No. 1) 



1/4 cake comjiressed yea^t 
(or 1^ cake dry yeast) 



(No. 2) 



1% tsp. salt 

1 c. dates stoned and chopped 



1 ]it. milk 

1 pt. white flour 

o% c. Graham flour 

1 c. pecan meats chopped fine 



Make a sponge of the ingredients in group one. Put it in a warm place 
to rise. Such a thin batter will not rise much, but when light will be full 
of fine bubbles and foamy on top. Add the other ingredients, using enough 
Graham flour to make a dough that can be kneaded. Knead well, return to 
the bowl, and when nearly double in bulk mold into loaves and let rise and 
bake. Graham bread does not rise as much as white bread. 

*Note to Teacher. Prepare the dough according to bread recipe and 
have it light when pupils come. Give each group a portion and have pupils 
knead it well and form it into rolls as directed. While the rolls are rising 
have pupils make bread and set to rise for nse by a later class. The pupilg 
must get the whole process, 



218 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Baking. In baking Graham or whole wheat bread the oven 
must be hotter at first than for white bread so that the rising 
process shall be checked quickly. Eeduce the heat after the 
first fifteen minutes and finish the cooking as for white bread. 

Moisture of Graham Bread. Graham and whole wheat 
bread are often moist. This is because they have risen too rap- 
idly or the rising process has gone on too long. The protein of 
tlie bran has the power of converting a part of the starch into 
sugar and this makes the bread moist. It is best to use a smaller 
quantity of yeast for these breads and to start the sponge with 
white flour. If dry yeast is used set the sponge the night before. 

Whole Wheat Bread 

1 tsp. salt 1 pt. scalded milk 
^ c. molasses V^ cake yeast 

2 tbsp. 'lukewarm water about 4 c. whole wheat flour 
2 c. white four 

Make a sponge of the milk, yeast, and white flour as in Graham bread. 
When light add the other ingredients and mix well. Let rise, then knead 
very slightly and form into loaves and biscuit with the hands. 

USES OF STALE BREAD 

All bits of stale yeast bread may be utilized. The large 
pieces may be used for croutons, dry or milk toast, or for hot 
meat sandwiches. Meats, eggs, or vegetables may be served on 
toast. The smaller pieces may be cut into cubes or points for 
garnishing or for serving with soup, or used in puddings, or for 
stuffed or scalloped vegetables. The very small pieces may be 
made into bread crumbs and combined with meat or vegetables, 
used in puddings or for crumbed dishes. No part need be 
wasted, provided the bread is kept in a clean dry place. 

* Toast 

(See Effect of Cooking on Starches, page 117) 

Why is toast more digestible than other breads? 

For toast use bread at least twenty-four hours old. Cut the bread in 
half -inch slices. Line a baking pan with kitchen paper and lay the slices 



YEAST BREAD 219 

ii\ it. Put the pan in a moderately hot oven until the bread is well dried. 
Then brown it under the gas flame and turn when one side is brown. A 
golden brown with no burnt edges is the proper color for toast. The inside 
of the bread must be crisp, not moist. Butter as it is eaten. Left-over 
toast may be reheated and used as if fresh. When using a wood stove dry 
the toast in the oven or on the front of the stove and brown over the 
coals. 

* Croutons 

Cut the bread as for toast, then cut in incli squares or in three-fourths 
inch strips. Toast, increasing the heat after the bread is dried. Stir with 
a fork so that all sides will be browned. The crust may be removed if 
desired. 

Toast Points 

Cut the bread in triangles, remove the crust, and ])roceed as for toast. 

Croustades 

Cut firm, fine grained bread into slices two inches; thick. Trim the slices 
into two and one-half inch squares. Eemove a square from the center of 
the top, leaving one-half inch on all sides and half an inch at the bottom. 
Toast to a very light brown in color. Remove from the oven, and brush 
the inside and top with melted butter, and fill the center with creamed 
vegetables or meats. A round cutter may be used for the croustades. 

Bread Crumbs. (See page 126.) If large quantities of 
crumbs are to be prepared use a bread crumber. 

To Cut Bread. Never cut bread while it is warm. Use a 
sharp knife and cut with a sawlike motion. Do not press on the 
knife or squeeze the bread with the hand. Cut in thin, even 
slices. In cutting fresh bread the knife should be warmed. 
Heat the knife by putting it into hot water. Leave it for a few 
moments ; then wipe quickly and reheat as needed. 

Baker's Bread. If baker's bread that equals the home- 
made bread in flavor and quality can be obtained it will save 
the housewife much time and labor in bread making. If baker's 
bread must be used, visit the bakeries and select the best, apply- 
ing the standards for judging bread. Be very careful to note 
the sanitary conditions of the shop, and, if possible, buy 
wrapped bread. Bread should be wrapped as soon as it has 
been properly cooled. Wliy? To wrap bread by hand does 



220 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

not cost quite one-fourth of a cent per loaf ; wrapped by machin- 
ery, on a large scale, it is much cheaper. If bread is wrapped 
after being thoroughly cooled and dried on racks the flavor 
will not be injured. 

SANDWICHES 

The Bread. The most important thing in making good 
sandwiches is to have good bread. Select a fine-grained loaf 
that is one day old. Cut the bread very thin. White, rye, 
Graham, brown bread, tender rolls, or biscuit may be used. Cut 
bread in triangles for lettuce, nut, and celery sandwiches ; in 
oblongs for meat sandwiches ; and in rounds for cheese or sweet 
sandwiches. Other fancy shapes may be used. 

Removing the Crust. For fancy sandwiches the crust is 
removed. If you are skillful in slicing bread, peel the crust from 
the loaf, then slice ; if not, slice thin, then trim off the crusts 
with a very sharp knife. 

The Filling. In putting the filling in a sandwich be sure to 
cover all the bread. A sandwich with a little filling in the cen- 
ter and dry crust around the edges is good neither to eat nor 
to look at. 

Do not select highly flavored fillings such as sardines or 
canned meats for picnic sandwiches, as they cause great thirst. 
If the filling is moist it must be put in just before serving; other- 
wise the bread will be wet and heavy. 

For meat sandwiciies very tender meat, either beef, mutton, 
or boiled ham, may be sliced thin and cut in small pieces, or it 
may be ground through a meat chopper and seasoned with but- 
ter, salt, a little chopped parsley, tomato catsup, or Worcester- 
shire sauce. Grated or toasted cheese and cottage cheese with 
chopped olives or nuts make good sandwiches. 

Among the vegetables, tomatoes peeled and sliced, crisp celery 
with nuts and Mayonnaise, or lettuce and nuts with French 
Dressing or Mayonnaise are delicious. Vegetable sandwiches 
should be served soon after they are made. 

Wrapping Sandwiches, Wrap in oiled paper, not more 
than four together. 



YEAST BREAD 221 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Wliy is j^ood yeast bread the most healthful form of bread f (See Quick 
Breads, page 199.) What is yeast? Describe compressed yeast. Dry yeast. 
Which do you prefer? Why? What does the yeast plant require for growth? 
How are these things provided? What temperature suits the yeast plant? 
What happens if it gets too cold? Too hot? Tell how to mix bread. Why 
does yeast cause bread to rise? With which flour may more yeast be used, a 
creamy granular one or a white smooth one? Why? What is meant by the 
sponge method? Why is bread kneaded? Give directions for baking bread. 
What is the result if the oven is too slow? Too hot? Why should yeast 
bread be thoroughly baked? How can a loaf of bread be judged? Score a 
loaf according to the standard. How should bread be kept? How may stale 
bread be used? What food elements are found in bread? What should be 
served with it to make a healthful diet? What digestive fluids have most 
to do with bread? (See pages 48 and 49.) What is the cost of a loaf of 
bread including fviel used in cooking? What grade of flour do you use 
for bread? How much does it cost? Has it much gluten? How much 
water does it absorb? 

Visit your bakery and note the following conditions: quality of flour; 
kinds of fat; quality of product; cleanliness of the mixing process; condi- 
tions under which wrapping is carried on ; general sanitary conditions ; 
presence of flies, rats, and roaches, etc. ; health of workers. 

Supplementary Becipes 

Bread Sticks (p. 349) . *Lettuee Sandwiches (p. 376) 

Hot Cross Buns (p. 349) Bread and Butter Rolls (p. 376) 

Swedish Tea Bread (p. 350) Aviation Sandwiches (p. 376) 

Coffee Cake (p. 350) Pimento Sandwiches (p. 376) 

Paste for Coffee Cake (p. 351) Salad Rolls (p. 376) 

* Sweet Sandwiches (p. 375) Biscuit Sandwiches (p. 377) 

Ham Sandwiches (p. 376) Brown Bread Sandwiches (p. 377) 

*Hot Meat Sandwiches (p. 376) '^Milk Toast (p. 351) 



CHAPTER XV 



FATS AND OILS 



Composition of Fats 







CARBO- 






CALORIES 


PROTEIN 


FAT 


HVDRATE 


FIBER 


ASH 


PER LB. 


1 


85 
100 
100 






.3 


3605 

4220 
4220 


1.2 


83 
100 






6.3 


3525 
4220 


21 


54.9 


17.3 


O 


2 


3030 


5.7 


50.6 


27.9 




1.7 


2760 


6.2 


5.4 


42.1 


1.8 


1.3 


1125 


25.8 


38.6 


24.4 


2.5 


2 


2560 


11 


71.2 


13.3 




1.5 


3455 


16.6 


63.4 


16.1 


2.6 


1.4 


3283 



ARTICLE WATER 

Butter 11 

Cottolene 

Lard, refined 

Oleomargarine 9.5 

Tallow ... 

Almonds 4.8 

Cocoanut 14.1 

Chestnut 45 

Peanut 9.2 

Pecan 3 

Walnut 2.5 



Fats and oils form one of the most important food groups. 
Oils are fats that are liquid at ordinary temperatures; olive 
and other salad oils are examples. 

Fats and oils are made up of three substances, some more 
solid than others. These are stearin, pahnitin, and olcin. If 
there is a large per cent of stearin the fat remains solid until 
heat is applied; tallow, the fat from beef or mutton, is an 
example. If the proportion of palmitin is great the fat is 
solid at ordinary temperatures. Butter is an example of this 
class of fats. If there is much olein the fat remains liquid unless 
the temperature is very low. By mixing fats which contain these 
ingredients in different proportions, compounds are made. In 
some cases the different substances in the fat may be separated 
by alternate heating, pressing, and cooling; in this way oleo 

222 



FATS AND OILS 223 

oil, used in oleomargarine, is obtained from tallow. Cotton- 
seed oil is much used with tallow to make certain cooking fats. 

In our climate both vegetable and animal fats are used. But- 
ter, lard, and tallow are from animals; olive oil, peanut oil, and 
cottonseed oil come from the vegetables. 

Cooking Fats. Many fats are used for food and in its 
preparation. Butter and olive oil are used uncooked. For cook- 
ing purposes lard, compound lard, and oleomargarine are used. 
The recipes in this book call for lard and butter, but other fats 
may be substituted. Remember, however, that some fats contain 
a greater proportion of water than others, and are therefore 
poorer in fat. For example, according to the table of compo- 
sition, lard is 100% fat; butter is 85% fat. If lard is used 
instead of butter, a smaller quantity is required. What fats do 
you use for pastries, frying, and seasoning? 

Lard is made from the fat of the hog; leaf lard from the 
sheets of fat in the body cavity is the choicest. 

Com.pound Lard is usually composed of lard stearin, beef 
stearin, and cottonseed oil; sometimes no lard is used. 

Uncolorcd Oleomargarine is a cheap cooking fat. It contains 
from 20 to 25% oleo oil (oil from tallow), 40 to 45%. lard, 
10 to 25% butter, 5 to 30% milk, cream, salt, and other in- 
gredients. 

Renovated Butter is made by melting old and rancid butter, 
aerating it, and churning it with skim milk ; it is then salted 
and worked. 

Cottonseed Oil is used to adulterate olive oil and as an ingre- 
dient in compound salad oils. Alone or combined with other 
fats, such as lard or tallow, it is used in various cooking fats 
that take the place of lard. 

Olive Oil is a valuable food but it is often adulterated with 
cottonseed, peanut, and other oils; these oils may not be objec- 
tionable, but such adulterations defraud the purchaser. Buy a 
reliable brand and read the labels carefully. 

Food Value. Fats are of p^reat importance in the diet. 
(See page 40.) A diet too low in fat may disturb nutrition, but 



224 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

too much fat may cause indigestion, so tliat in i)lanning menus 
one must regulate the amount of fat. In cold weather more fat 
may be eaten than in warm weather. Why? (See Table.) 
What fats do you use for food? Remember that a rich gravy 
contains fat, hence if such a gravy is used little butter is needed. 
If bread is eaten with jam or other sweets the bread should be 
buttered unless an abundance of fat is eaten in some other form, 
since SAveets do not take the place of fat in the body. 

The Spoon Test. There are various tests for adulterants 
in fats; the spoon test is very simple. Test oleomargarine, reno- 
vated butter, and pure butter by this method. Put a little of the 
fat in a tablespoon, melt gradually, then increase the heat and 
bring to as brisk a boil as possible. After boiling has begun, stir the 
contents of the spoon thoroughly (not neglecting the outer edges) 
two or three times at intervals dui'ing boiling and shortly before 
the boiling ceases. Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily, 
sputtering (more or less) like a mixture of grease and water, and 
produce little or no foam. Renovated butter usually produces 
a very small amount of foam. Oleomargarine has a meaty odor 
like that of cooked meat ; one who is familiar with good butter 
can detect oleomargarine immediately. Genuine butter gener- 
ally boils with less noise (unless it contains much water) and 
produces an abundance of foam. 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

What is the difference between oils and fats? Mention several oils 
and fats. Which ones are used by your family? Are they pnre or com- 
pound? What fats and oils are in general use in this climate? Arc they 
obtained from animals or vegetables'? What is the price per pound of but- 
ter, lard, compound lard, and some of the cottonseed compounds? Of oHve 
oil per pint? Of otlier salad oils? What does your pure food law say about 
olive oil? Is much artificial butter used in your community? Give the 
Sj;oon test for butter. If a locipe calls for one cup of butter, and lard is 
substituted, how much of the latter will be required? 

Of what use are fats and oils to the body? Tell what you can of the 
digestion of fat. Why is more fat needed in cold weather than in warm? 
Is ham a good hot weather food? Give reason for your answer. Why is 



FATS AND OILS 225 

food tlmt is very rich in fat apt to be slow in digesting? Why is food 
that is covered with fat indigestible? Why is overheated fat objectionable? 

The Care of Fats. Fats become rancid or decompose. This 
change goes on rapidly in a warm place. All fats shonld be kept 
as cold as possible and protected from the air. Rancid fats have 
undergone a chemical change and the products of this change 
are very irritating to the digestion. Much fat is thrown away 
that could be utilized; if not used as food, soap may be made 
from it. Fats from stews and soups made of fresh beef, pork, or 
mutton may be used in cooking. When the soup or other liquid 
cools, lift off the fat with a skimmer, put it into a saucepan, 
heat it gently until it is quite hot and has ceased bubbling (it 
bubbles because of the water in it), and strain through a cheese- 
cloth into a clean bowl that can be closely covered. 

Home Rendered Fats. Fats are prepared for use by being 
rendered ; tliat is, the fat is cooked gently until its connecting 
tissues shrink and the fat liquefies; it is then drained from the 
membranes, which are known as ''cracklings." 

Remove all flesh from the fat, wash it clean, cut in small 
pieces, and cover with cold water for several hours. Then drain 
off the water and add one cup of water to each two pounds of 
fat. Less water in proportion will be needed for a large quan- 
tity of fat. Cook over a low fire until the fat is clear and the 
membranes are a golden brown. Strain through a cheesecloth 
and press the membranes together in the cloth to remove all of 
the fat. This last fat will not be very clear. Cook mutton 
suet in a double boiler, using a cup of milk to each two pounds; 
when the fat is extracted let it cool, remove the cake of fat, 
melt it over a low fire, and add from one-fifth to one-half of 
rendered lard ; strain into jars while hot. 

Beef Fat. The fat from the flank and loins, particularly 
that of fat cows and heifers, has less stearin and is much softer 
than ordinary tallow. It is bought by many persons who do not 
use pork fat. In preparing it no lard is added. 

Making Lard. Fat for lard must be kept in a cool, airy 
place. The fat from around the entrails spoils quickly. Wash 



226 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

it in soda water (one tablespoonful of soda to one quart of water) 
and cook it as soon as possible. Follow directions for home 
rendered fats. If lard is even slightly scorched the flavor is 
unpleasant. Render the leaf and other internal fat separate 
from the outside fat. 

Bacon Fat. This may be used without further preparation 
for frying, for greasing pans, and for basting meat and fish ; if 
from salt bacon, not smoked, it may be used for shortening. Fat 
from sausage may be used for frying such foods as have a flavor 
which will not be affected by it. 

Fats for Soap Making. Any rendered fat not fit for food 
ma}^ be saved for soap making. Home-made soap is not as good 
as the factory product ; therefore it is well to sell the fat and buy 
soap ready made. Clean, light colored fat brings from three to 
four cents per pound. In some towns it may be sold directly to 
the factories; in others it is collected by junk men. Keep soap 
fat as clean as possible. 

Experiment I. With fat saved in the kitchen make a small quantity 
of soap, using the formula from the concentrated lye can. Compare this 
with the manufactured product. 



QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What is meant by rancid fats? Are they fit for food? Give reasons for 
answer. How should fats be stored? Tell how to save all fat so that it 
may be used. Describe the process of rendering fats. Tell how lard is 
made. Do the soap factories in your town buy fat from the housekeepers? 

How Fat Is Afifected by Heat. Fats wdien heated decom- 
pose or break up and form irritating compounds. This change 
takes place at different temperatures according to the nature 
of the fat. In butter the decomposition point is quite low ; there- 
fore it is one of the poorest fats for frying, and as it scorches 
easily it should not be used for greasing pans. Lard has a higher 
decomposition point than butter, and is therefore better adapted 
for cooking. Tallow also decomposes at a high temperature, but 



FATS AND OILS 



227 



when foods cooked in it are cold they have a dis^agreeable flavor. 
Tallow may be used, however, if mixed with lard. Olive oil is 
the best for cooking as it may be heated ver3^ hot before breaking 
np, but it is too expensive for ordinary use. 

Experiment II. Heat, separately, lard, butter, and tallow (tallow is the 
rendered tat of beef, veal, or mutton) and other cooking fats until the 
Ijubbling ceases. Fat bubbles because there is water in it. When the fat 
becomes hot enough the water goes off in steam and the bubbling stops. Did 
any of the fats burn before the bubbling stopped? Butter decomposes at a 
temperature of 206° F., tallow at 302° F., lard at 392° F., and olive oil at 
608° F. In fried foods the fat is always overheated; such food is very 
difficult to digest. 

Experiment III. Heat fats as in Experiment II for thirty minutes, 
and note appearance. 

To Clarify Fats. Fat that is overheated becomes dark or 
burned and may be clarified by cooking a few slices of raw potato 
in it. Cook until the potato begins to burn, then strain through 
cheesecloth and let it settle. Compare the odor of clarified fat 
with that of fresh fat. Remember that continued heating in- 
creases the indigestibility of fat. 

FRIED FOODS 

Experiment IV. From Experiment I it has been determined that lard, 
a vegetable oil, or some of the compounds is the best cheap fat for frying. 
How hot shall it be heated? Put fat over fire in a cold pan. If it is put 
into a Jiot pan the odor is very disagreeable. Heat some lard until it bub- 
bles. Drop in a small cube of bread and cook for one minute. Heat the 
lard until it smokes and is perfectly still. Cook another cube of bread 
in it for one minute. Then compare the two. Break them open and deter- 
mine which has absorbed the more fat. Fat must he smol^ing Jiot for fry- 
ing. Can butter be heated as hot as this? Why not? (See Experiment II.) 

Experiment V. Cook a slice of potato in a little fat, not enough to 
cover. Cook another in deep fat. Which has taken up the more fat? 

Fried foods should be cooked in deep, hot fat and be well 
drained. Even if carefully cooked, however, they are not easily 
digested, and should be eaten sparingly if at all. 



228 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



Temperature of Fats Used for Frying. Fats for most un- 
cooked foods should be hot enough to brown an inch cube of 
bread in sixty seconds. Fats for croquettes and other cooked 
mixtures and for fish and oysters should brown the bread in forty 
seconds. These cooked mixtures need only to be quickly re- 
heated, but fish and oysters, because of the moisture in them, 
lower the temperature of the fat into which they are put so much 
that it should be very hot before they are put in. 

Caution. Put the foods to he fried into the fat tvith a skim- 
mer or spatula, keeping the hands and face as far away as 
possible. Fat sputters when cold or moist substances are put 
into it and one may he hadly hurned. Smoking hot fat is much 
hotter than boiling water and hums deeply. Keep a pan of 
sand near at hand to pour into the fat if it takes fire. Never 
put water into hot or hlazing fat. 

How to Treat Fats Used for Frying. Put the fat in a warm 
place to settle. Then strain through a cheesecloth into a clean 
vessel. Clarify when it becomes dark. 

* Fried Potatoes. (Half Potato for Two Pupils) 

Pare medium-sized potatoes, slice thin, and let stand in cold water for 
an hour. Dry on a soft cloth. Why dry potatoes? Cook in deep fat to a 
delicate brown. Drain on kitchen paper, sprinkle with salt, and serve. 



Meat Croquettes 



2 c. chopped veal or chicken 

% tsp. paprika 

1 tsp. lemon juice 

1 tbsp. shredded parsley 



1 to 2 c. thick white sauce 
1/4 tsp. celery salt 
5 drops onion juice 
salt to taste 



Equal amounts of meat and sauce are generally used, but the quantity 
varies according to the condition of the meat. Freshly cooked or canned 
meat requires less sauce than dry meat. The dark meat of chicken requires 
less moistening than the white. 

Chop the meat fine, but do not mash it to a pulp. Add seasonings and 
enough sauce to moisten well, having it just firm enough to mold. Chill on 
a flat dish. Mold two tablespoonfuls at a time into balls, cylinders, cubes, 
or pear shapes. With a broad-bladed knife lift the croquettes and dip into 



FATS AND OILS 



229 



fine white bread crumbs, then into egg (one egg beaten with two tablespoon- 
fiils of water) and again into crumbs. Brush off any excess crumbs, lay the 
croquettes in a long handled wire basket, and immerse in deep fat until 
a golden brown color is secured. Drain on paper and serve. Cook only a 
few at a time so that the fat will not be cooled. 

* Sauted Potatoes 

Sauteing (so-ta'ing) or cooking in a little fat, is frequently called frying. 
This is an incorrect use of the term, however, as frying means immersing 
in fat. 

Melt three tablespoonfuls of fat in a frying pan, add one cup of cold, 
cooked potatoes finely chopped ,• sprinkle with salt. Mix the potatoes and fat 
well and cook for three minutes, stirring all the time. Then place where the 
bottom will brown. When well browned fold as you would an omelet and 
serve on a warm dish. 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

What is meant by fried foods? What fats are best for frying? Why 
put fat for frying in a cold pan? Give test for temperature for frying 
uncooked foods. For cooked foods. In which is the fat hotter? Why are 
fish and oysters cooked in very hot fat? Tell how potatoes are fried. Tell 
how to i)repare croquettes for frying. Why drain fried foods on paper? 
What is the difference between frying and sauteing? Which method is to 
be preferred? Wliy? How should fat that has been used for frying be 
treated? How may dark fat be clarified? Is fat that has been repeatedly 
reheated suitable for food? Give three reasons for the indigestibility of 
fried foods. Is frying a cheap way of cooking? 

PASTEY 

Pastry or pie crust is very indigestible as each little starch 
grain in the flour is coated with fat that keeps the digestive juices 
from acting on it. It is also very rich, and unless it is eaten 
following a light meal adds more fat than the body requires. 
Fat is used in pastry to make it tender. 

In mixing pastry great care is needed to keep all the ingre- 
dients very cold. If warm, its particles stick together, little air 
can be folded in, and the paste will not be light. Little or no bak- 
ing powder or other leavening is used, and the lightness depends 
on the expansion of the air in tlie dough. Good pastry results 
from very carefiil handling of the ingredients. 



2:^0 '^HE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

* Plain Paste 

(Two crusts for small pie, about eight inches in diameter) 

1 c. flour 14 tsp. salt 

1^ tsp. baking powder %: c. shortening 

about 1/4 e. cold water 

Mix as directed for biscuit, using just enough water to make a dough 
that is neither sticky on account of too much water nor crumbly on account 
of too little. It should leave the bowl in a mass. Chill well, toss, half at 
a time, on to a slightly floured board until well coated with flour, then roll 
lightly from the center, keeping it circular in sliajje. 

A More Elaborate Paste 

(For one pie) 

1 c. pastry flour Ys tsp. salt 

2V2 tsp. lard 21/2 tsp. butter 

Use enough ice water to make a stiff dough. 

Chill all ingredients. Put the butter in a bowl, cover with ice water, 
and wash well with a wooden paddle. Drain off the water' and press the 
butter with the paddle until quite dry and waxy. 

Cut the lard into the flour as for biscuit dough. When it is granular add 
ice water, turn the paste on a lightly floured board, and pat and roll it into 
an oblong about one-fourth inch thick. Pat the butter into a cake one-half 
an inch thick and lay it on the half of a sheet of pastiy that is nearest. Fold 
the upper half of the sheet over the butter and press the edges together. 
Fold the right edge of the sheet over two-thirds of the distance and the left 
thirt] under, making three layers when finished. Now turn the sheet half 
way around, lift the paste, and dredge the board with flour as needed. Pat 
and roll, being careful not to press too hard or the paste will break and let 
out the air that has been folded in. Fold again as at first, and i^at and roll 
to a thin sheet from one-fourth to one-eighth inch. If paste gets soft, place 
it in a pan on ice to chill. 

Shortening for Paste. Lard may be used in combination 
with butter or oleomargarine for pastry. Lard and certain 
other cooking fats may also be used alone for this purpose. 

Making a Pie. Use a perforated i)ie tin so tliat the 
bottom crust will be well cooked. Crust that is not thor- 
oughly done will not bo palatable. After the paste is 
folded and rolled for the last time cut off just enough for one pie. 



FATS AND OILS 231 

Koll it a little larger than the pan into which it is to be placed, 
as it sli rinks in baking. "When lining the pan be sure there is 
no air left under the crust. A pie with only one crust is more 
digestible than one with tw^o crusts. 

For the upper crust allow a little more paste than for the 
lower. A juicy pie requires a rim to keep it from running over. 
Gut a thin piece of paste three-fourths of an inch wide. Moisten 
the top of the pie and lay the rim over it, full, not stretched tight. 
A pastry jigger makes a fluted rim. For mince pies a rim is 
put between the crusts. Moisten the top of the rim before put- 
ting on the crust, and prick the top crust with a fork so that 
the steam can find a way out. 

For cooked fruit bake the crust first, then put in the fruit. 
Prick the crust with a fork before baking so that it wdll be 
smooth. 

Bake pies in a moderately hot oven. Always have the bottom 
of the oven hotter than the top. Cook fruit pies from thirty 
to forty-five minutes, custard pies until the filling is set. They 
should be put into a hot oven so that the bottom crust will be 
cooked before it becomes too sticky. If necessary cover the top. 
Lower the heat after the first ten or fifteen minutes. The pie 
must not boil. 

* Apple Pie (Class Hecipe) 

2 medium -sized tart apples 

1 tsp. butter 

4 tbsp. sugar 

sprinkling of nutmeg or cinnamon 

Make one cup of flour into paste, according to recipe. Line a small pie 
tin, and put on a rim. Pare, core, and slice the apples. I'ut tliem in the 
paste, heaping the apples twice the depth of the pan. Sprinkle with sugar. 
Put the butter on in tiny bits; then lay on the top crust. Press the edges 
together with a fork. Cut several small gashes to let out the steam, and 
bake as directed. 

Cheese Straws 

1 c. flour % c. grated cheese 

Vs tsp. cayenne 14 tsp. salt 

Vi c. butter ice waiter 



I 



232 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Mix and sift the dry ingredients and proceed as for pastry, folding in 
half the cheese as the butter is folded in. Then fold in the remainder and 
finally fold a third time. Roll into a sheet one-fourth inch thick and cut 
into strips four inches long and one-fourth inch wide. Bake in a moderate 
oven for eight minutes, lowering the heat if the strips are in danger of 
burning. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What can be said of the digestibility of pastry? Does the making of 
pastry use much of the housekeeper's time? What kind of fat is used 
for pastry? Is j)ie a cheap dessert? Compute the cost of an apple pie 
including fuel. Which is better for your health, pie or fresh raw apples 1 
Which costs the more? Tell how pastry is made. Why is it important to 
have all ingredients cold? Why does pastry become light? How should the 
oven be heated for baking pastry? 

EMULSIFICATION OF FATS 

Fats may be combined with liquids by a process that is known 
as emulsification ; that is, by beating, the particles of fat are 
mixed with the liquid. Fats do not dissolve in liquids, as sugar 
does; instead, small particles of the fat mix with the liquid by 
being suspended in it. For example, in milk, the butterfat, or 
cream, is suspended in the liquid in the form of very small par- 
ticles. Milk is therefore known as an emulsion. When tlie milk 
is kept for a time the fat separates and rises to the top. A sep- 
aration like this sometimes takes place in gravies and salad 
dressings if they are not carefully made. 

Salad Oils. Pure olive oil is the best oil for salads. Buy 
from a reliable firm, as cottonseed oil and peanut oil are sometimes 
mixed with it. Adulteration can usually be detected by taste 
and odor. Peanut oil, for example, has an odor like beans ; cot- 
tonseed oil, especially when heated, can be easily recognized; 
good olive oil has a bland, pleasant taste and an odor that is dis- 
tinct from any other oil. The finest olive oil is a pale green in 
color. Some varieties are very light ; others are a golden yellow. 
Get from a reliable druggist a sample of strictly pure oil and 
become familiar with the odor and taste. This will be a guide in 
selecting oil. Some of the compound salad oils are probably not 
unhealthful but one does not wish to pay olive oil prices for 



FATS AND OILS 



233 



them. Cottonseed oil, much used in these compounds, is very 
cheap and is the best substitute for olive oil. 

* French Dressing (Class Recipe i/4) 

6 tbsp. olive oil or other oil a pinch of paprika or 

2 tbsp. vinegar or cayenne 

1^2 tbsp. lemon juice I/2 tsp. salt 

Have the oil very cold. Put the salt, pepper, antl oil into a cold bowl 
and beat all together until well mixed. Then add the acid, a few drops at 
a time, beating constantly and briskly until well mixed. Serve with salads 
of green vegetables or acid fruits. Make French Dressing shortly before 
using. 

* Mayonnaise (Ma'6-naz') 

(Pupils work in groups of four or six) 

1 egg yolk y2 c. olive oil or other salad oil 

% tsp. salt ^2 tbsp. lemon juice 

% tsp. vinegar % tsp. jiaprika 

Have all the ingredients very cold. If the weather is warm, put a small 
bowl into a pan of ice and salt. Put in the dry ingredients, beat in the 
egg, and then add oil, a drop at a time, beating briskly. When too stiff to 
beat add a few drops of acid alternately with the oil. When done the 
dressing should be stiff enough to hold its shape. Keep on ice, closely 
covered, until ready to serve. If the dressing curdles beat it very gradually 
into another egg yolk. Serve with acid fruit, and vegetable and meat 
salads. All the acid may be added first, then the oil one teaspoonful at a 
time. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What is meant by an emulsion ? Give examples. What are the important 
points in making salad dressing? Describe the making of Mayonnaise. 
Mention some salads on which Mayonnaise may be used. 

NUTS 

Most nuts may be classed with fats. The chestnut should be 
considered as a carbohydrate ; as it is largely starch, it requires 
cooking to be digestible. The peanut also contains much starch 
as well as a high percentage of fat, and should therefore be cooked. 
It is a legume, not a nut, but is classed with nuts on account 



i 



234 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

of its fat. All nuts have much woody fiber, therefore, unless 
chewed very carefully, they will be indigestible. 

Rancid Nuts. Nuts, like other fats, grow rancid in a warm 
place or in warm weather. Keep them in a cool place. Any 
rancid fat causes indigestion. 

* Peanut Butter 

% c. good roasted peanuts 1 tbsp. butter 

Vs to Vi tsp. salt 1 tbsp. water boiled and cooled 

Buy freshly roasted peanuts or roast them carefully in a moderate oven, 
being careful not to burn them. Shell the nuts, rub off the brown 
skin with a cloth, pouring the nuts from bowl to bowl in the air so that the 
skin will blow off. Grind through a meat chopper, using the finest cutter. 
Eub to a paste in a mortar if possible. After rubbing in the butter, salt, 
and water, pack in small glasses. Cover with oiled paper and keep in a cold 
place. Peanut butter should be made in small quantities and used while 
fresh. If it is to be used immediately moisten the butter with cream. 

Blanching Almonds. Almonds are rich in protein and have 
a high per cent of fat. They may therefore be used as a meat 
substitute. 

In order to remove the brown skin, cover the shelled nuts 
with boiling water for two minutes. Drain. Pour cold water 
over them and rub until the skins are loosened. Lift from the 
water with a skimmer and dry on a towel, taking off any bits of 
skin that remain. 

Shredded almonds are used for sprinkling over cakes, ice 

cream, and salads. Cut the blanched almonds in thin shreds 

lengthwise. 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

Why do nuts require careful chewing? Why should chestnuts be cooked? 
Peanuts? Pow should nuts be kept? Compare the cost and food value of a 
pound of peanuts and one of butter. Compare in like manner almonds, 
pecans, walnuts, and butter. Make a menu containing nuts. Would you use 
nuts with foods rich in fat? 

Supplementary Eecipes 

Doughnuts (p. 363) Pumpkin Pie (p. 373) 

Sweet Potato Pie (p. 373) 



CHAPTER XVI 



SUGAR 



COMPOSITION OF SUGAES 



WATKK PROTEIN I 

Granulated Sugar 

Maple Sugar 16.3 

Honey 18.2 .4 

Sugar-house Molasses 25.1 2.4 

Stick Candy 3 



CAICBOIIY- 
DUATE 

100 

82.8 

• 81.2 

69.3 

96.5 



CALORIES 
ASH PER POUND 

1860 



.9 

.2 

3.2 

.5 



1540 
1520 
1290 
1785 



Sugar is made from the juice of the sugar cane and the sugar 
beet. A little is manufactured from the sap of the maple tree. 
Honey is a kind of sugar and was used for cakes and preserves 
before cane sugar became known. Glucose is a sugar found in 
fruits, but it is also made from cornstarch heated with an acid. 
(See Experiment V, page 44.) It is not so sweet but is cheapei' 
than cane sugar, and is sometimes used as an adulterant. Lac- 
tose, or milk sugar, made from milk, is used for infants and in 
medicines. Maltose, or malt sugar, is made from sprouting seed. 

In this text the term "cane sugar" is used to include both 
cane and beet sugar as they are alike in composition and can 
not be distinguished from each other by general appearance 
or taste. 

Saccharin is a mineral substance many times sweeter than 
sugar. It is not a food and is injurious to health. It is used 
as an adulterant in jellies, canned fruits, syrups, and soft drinks. 

Pure molasses is made of the cane juice that does not crys- 
tallize in the process of sugar making. Sorghum is a syrup 
made by boiling the juice of sorghum cane. It is used alone or in 
compound syrup with glucose. Corn syrup is four-fifths glu- 
cose and one-fifth cane syrup. 

235 



236 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Experiment I. Take any acid juice, such as apple, gi'ape, or berry. 
Divide it into three portions and sweeten the first one to taste, using granu- 
lated sugar; add the same quantity ot sugar to the second portion and cook 
for five minutes; add the same quantity of crystallized glucose to the third 
portion; taste each and see which is the sweetest. Why do we sweeten acid 
fruits at the end of the cooking period! Which is sweeter, cane sugar or 
glucose. What is the price per ^Jound of each? 

Keview tests for Grape Sugar, Experiment II, page 44, for Cane Sugar, 
Experiment IV, page 44, and for changing starch to sugar, Experiment V, 
page 44. Exhibit samples of glucose and milk sugar to class. 

Food Value. Sugar is an almost pure form of carbohy- 
drate, having barely a trace of water. It yields eighteen hundred 
and sixty calories per pound and is a highly concentrated food, 
but unless it is very much diluted when eaten it may irritate 
the lining of the stomach. A diet too rich in sugar disturbs the 
digestion, overburdens the liver, and often causes a very yellow 
skin. Do not eat sweets between meals, but take a small allow- 
ance for dessert occasionally. Sugar is very fattening, and it 
has been estimated that if a person eats one lump of sugar per 
day in excess of what his body can properly utilize he Avill gain 
forty pounds in weight in ten years. Children should not eat 
nuich sugar. It does not build bone and muscle and will destroy 
their appetite for tissue-building foods. 

Experiment II. Add enough cold water to one-fourth cup of sugar 
to dissolve it; note the amount required. 

Experiment III. Repeat Experiment II, using hot water. 

Experiment IV. Mix solutions from Experiments II and III. Add one 
tablesjioonful of water and boil until thick enough for a table^syrup. Bottle 
and let stand for several days. What is the result? Sugar syrups crystal- 
lize; rock candy is made of a heavy syrup turned into pans in which threads 
are stretched, the crystals forming on the threads. 

Syrup for frostings and candies should not be stirred while cooking, as 
crystals will form. Glucose and acids prevent crystallization. Cane sugar 
\yhen heated with an acid is jjartly changed to glucose which does not form 
large crystals. (See Experiments I, II, III, and IV, pages 43, 44.) To 
what candies are acids added? What acids are used? We seldom use 
glucose in the pure form. Corn syrup, however, which is largely glucose, 
is added in making some candies. 



SUGAR 237 

CANDY 

Some candies are almost as rich in sugar as granulated sugar 
is; Others contain more water and also starch and flour. As 
candy is a concentrated food it disturbs the digestion if eaten 
in quantity, A small portion, however, taken at the end of a 
meal is allowable. Home-made candy is usually of better quality 
than the commercial article and is also cheaper. 

In making any cooked candy except barley sugar, or caramel- 
ized sugar candy one must be able to tell when the sugar is 
cooked enough. Sugar is cooked with water or other liquid, and 
whenever enough water is cooked out the sugar crystallizes or 
granulates. If more than the given quantity of liquid is used 
in fudge, will it need longer cooking ? Why ? Candies are often 
spoiled by too much cooking, but if cooked too little they will 
not be firm. 

TEMPERATURES FOR COOKING SUGAR 

Small thread 215° F. Soft crack 290° F. 

Long thread 217° F. Hard crack 310° F. 

Soft ball 238° F. Caramel 350° F. 

Hard ball 248° F. 

Barley Sugar (Class Recipe) 

1/4 c. sugar 

Butter a plate before putting the sugar over the fire. Put the sugar into 
a small frying pan. Stir over a very moderate heat until melted and turn into 
the greased platter. This is a candy known as barley sugar. 

* Peanut Brittle (Class Recipe) 

1/4 c. sugar 2 tbsp. chopped peanuts 

Rub the brown skin from roasted peanuts and chop. Melt the sugar as 
above. Add the peanuts and turn into a greased platter, Tlien mark in 
squares. Or, add one-fourth cup water to sugar, cook to a light straw 
color, and proceed as above. 

* Caramel Syrup (Class Recipe) 

% c. sugar y2 c. boiling water 



238 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Proceed as for barlej sugar. Stir constantly until a golden brown color 
is secured and add the boiling water. As the sugar is much hotter than 
the boiling water there will be a great deal of steam. Do not hold face 
near the pan. Stir over the fire until the caramel is dissolved and cook 
until it reaches the thickness of table syrup. Put the syrup in a small 
jar and use it as a flavoring for pudding sauces. 

Where a brown color is desired with less sweetening power, cook the 
sugar to a I'ich brown before adding the water. 

Sugar heated until it browns is said to be caramelized. 

* Fudge (Class Recipe 1/4) 

2 c. sugar 1 square bitter chocolate 

4 tbsp. cream % c. milk 

1 tbsp. vanilla 

In making fudge the syrup is cooked to the soft ball stage; that is, 
until a little of the syrup dropped in ice water forms a soft ball (test 
temperature) that just holds its shape when taken between the fingers. 
Be careful to see that it makes a ball rather than a sticky mass when taken 
up. If it makes a hard ball it is cooked too much. 

Cook the chocolate, sugar, and milk in a smooth saucepan to the soft 
ball stage, stirring until it dissolves. Beat until it becomes creamy. Add 
cream and vanilla a little at a time, beating well. Pour into a buttered pan 
and cut into squares. Add one cup of chopped nuts if desired. 

Fondant (Class Recipe l^) 

2 c. sugar !/•> c. water 

M: tsp. cream tartar 

Mix sugar and cream of tartar in a smooth saucepan. Add water and 
stir over the fire until dissolved. Wipe the sides of the pan clean with a 
damp piece of cheesecloth wrapped around a fork. Cook until it reaches 
the soft ball stage. Cover at first so that the steam will keep down the 
crystals. (See Fudge.) Test after the first ten minutes. Keep the sides of 
the pan free from crystals. Why? Then set the pan down gently- until it 
is almost cool. The center should be barely warm, but it should not be 
hard around the edge. Beat with a spoon until it is creamy and begins 
sO crumble. Then knead with the hands to a creamy, smooth mass. Place 
in a bowl, cover with oiled paper, and put in a cool place over night. The 
fondant may be used for cream m.ints, chocolate creams, and other candies. 

Cream Mints 
1 c. fondant 6 drops oil of peppermint 



SUGAE 239 

Melt the fondant in a smooth saucepan over hot water, add peppermint; 
then drop from the tip of a teaspoon on oiled paper, making the drops the 
size of a quarter. If colored mints are desired add a little pink or green 
coloring to the melted fondant. The tints must be delicate. Most colors 
are made from minerals and are injurious, so it is best to use uncolored 
candies. 

Nut Creams 

It is well to buy a few creams from a reliable confectioner for models. 
Mold the creams and keep cool until firm, dip in fondant (melted over hot 
water) colored and flavored as desired, and lay half a pecan or walnut meat 
on each. 

Chocolate Creams (Class Eecipe Vi) 

Mold a little smaller than for nut creams, as the coating will be much 
heavier. When firm dip in chocolate. 



Chocolate for Dipping 

Add two squares of chocolate and one teaspoonful of vanilla to one cu]> 
of fondant. Melt over hot water until it is smooth. Eemove from the fire, 
but keep in hot water. Drop a cream into the fondant, lift out quickly 
with a two-tined fork, and lay on oiled paper. Work quickly, as the 
cream thickens. The candy may be reheated and thinned with a few drops 
of hot water. When the chocolate begins to granulate, stir well, heat until 
soft, and turn into a small platter. It may be used like fudge. 

CAKE FEOSTINGS 

Cake frostiugs are usually made with a heavy syrup for a 
basis, although they may be made of uncooked sugar. They add 
to the appearance of a cake but may make it indigestible because 
of the excess of sugar. Success with cooked frostings depends 
on skill in cooking the sugar. Success in uncooked frostings 
depends upon the manner of beating and the condition of the 
sugar used. 

* Plain Cooked Frosting 

(Class Recipe for Group of Four) 

1 c. sugar V. c. water 

Vi tsp. flavoring 1 egg-white, well beaten 



240 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Boil sugar and water as directed for fondant until it spins a fine thread 
when dropped from the tip of the spoon. Pour it gradually over the egg, 
beating constantly. Add the flavoring and beat until stiff. Then spread 
on the cake. If the frosting must wait for the cake, set the bowl in a 
j)an of hot water. 

Ornamental Frosting 

2 c. sugar % c. water 

3 egg-whites, well beaten i/^ tsp. cream of tartar 

Proceed as for plain frosting, cooking until it spins a long thread from 
the spoon. When thick enough to spread on the cake put on a thin coat 
and when it hardens slightly put on another. Beat the remainder until very 
stiff, so that it will hold its shape. Then turn into a pastry bag and decorate 
the cake as desired. Elaborate cakes are not in good taste. 



* Plain Chocolate Frosting 

1 c. sugar 2 squares chocolate 

% c. water 1 tsp. butter 

1 tsp, vanilla 

Place all ingredients except flavoring in a saucepan over a low heat and 
stir until melted. Boil for twenty minutes. Eemove from the fire and beat 
until cool. Add flavoring and spread on cake while still warm enough to 
glaze nicely. Add a few drops of hot water if too thick. 



* Uncooked Frosting No. 2 

1 tbsp. milk or cream % c. powdered sugar 

14 tsp. flavoring 

Roll and sift the sugar. Stir it into the liquid untij thick enough to 
sjjread. Put frosting on the cake with a wet knife. 



* Uncooked Frosting No. 2 

3 egg-whites 1 tbsp. lemon juice 

confectioners' sugar 

Sift the sugar. Put the eggs (unbeaten) into a bowl. Add three table- 
spoonfuls of sugar, and beat for five minutes. Add three more tablespoon- 
fuls of sugar and beat it in well. Continue adding sugar in this way until 



SUGAR 



241 



the frosting is quite thick. Then add one teaspoonful of lemon juice. Add 
more sugar and lemon juice. When all the lemon juice is used and the frost- 
ing is stiff enough to spread put it on the cake. Beat more sugar into the 
remainder of the frosting until it will hold its shape, then put through the 
pastrj tube, and decorate the cake as desired. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

From what is the glucose that is used in syrups and candies made? 
What effect has too much sugar on health? Describe the thread test for 
sugar; the soft ball; the caramel. Give some recipes in which they are 
used. How does the quantity of sugar used affect candy? Why is acid 
used? What acids may be used? Why not stir or shake fondant? Why 
is cream of tartar used? What could be substituted for it? If you should 
make a mistake and add one cup of water when the recipe calls for one-half 
cup would the candy be spoiled? Give reason for your answer 

Supplementary Recipes 

Pulling Candy (p. 355) Orange Frosting (p. 366) 

Fruits Glace (p. 356) Chocolate Frosting (p. 366) 

Nuts Glace (p. 356) Fudge Frosting (p. 366) 

Divinity (p. 356) *Mocha Frosting (p. 366) 
Caramel Frosting (p. 366) 



CHAPTER XVII 

CAKES AND CAKE MAKING 

A good cake must be tender and melting. Cakes contain 
eggs, and if the egg is overheated the cake is tough and dry. 

Cake is hard to digest because in it ingredients are com- 
bined that should be cooked at different temperatures. Those 
that contain butter are apt to disturb the digestion on account 
of the coating of fat that covers the starch grains of the flour. 
Sponge cake and angel cake contain overcooked egg, or, if the 
egg is properly cooked, the flour is not done. Cake should be 
used in moderation and eaten very slowly. 

Cake Flour. A good cake flour holds its shape when pressed 
in the hard and is velvety to the touch. Bread flour does not 
make such good cake because of the gluten it contains. If bread 
flour is used in a recipe that calls for pastry flour, use only seven- 
eighths of the given quantity. The recipes in this book are 
based on a high grade flour which makes good biscuits. A good 
biscuit flour is not so rich in gluten as bread flour. In substi- 
tuting pastry flour for it, use one-sixteenth more. 

Other (Ingredients. If sugar is coarse, roll and sift, for 
coarse sugar will give a hard crust and a poor texture. Eggs 
must be fresh ; if old the albumin cells are broken and air can- 
not be beaten into the wdiite. Use only the best flavorings and 
baking powder. 

LEAVENING AGENTS IN CAKES 

Cakes are made light by carbon dioxide gas (From what is 
this gas obtained?), by air, and by steam, just as muffins and 
breads are lightened. Eggs are used to give additional light- 
ness as they form a film to hold the gas and air bubbles. Much 
air can be beaten into egg, particularly into the white. Baking 
powder and other leavening agents are used with egg in most 
butter cakes. In sponge cake and angel cake the lightness de- 

242 



CAKES AND CAKE MAKING 243 

pends on the air beaten into them. If the number of eggs is 
lessened, as in hot water sponge cake, baking powder is added. 

Proportion of Principal Ingredients. In cake as in biscuit, 
muffins, and yeast bread there is a general proportion of liquid 
to flour, and of sugar to flour. Fat becomes liquid when melted, 
so in cakes rich in fat (the old-fashioned pound cake is an exam- 
ple) no other liquid is used. If the fat is increased more flour 
must be used, or the milk or water, if either is used, must be 
lessened, as the batter must be thicker. When egg yolks are 
substituted for the whole egg the quantity of fat added is 
lessened because egg yolk is rich in fat. (See Yellow Cake, 
page 352.) Egg seems to be a liquid when uncooked but acts 
partly as a thickening when heated. Therefore, if egg is used as 
the liquid element instead of fat or other liquid, less flour is 
required. Sponge cake and angel cake are examples. 

Order of Worl:. (1) Get out all the necessary utensils. Light the fire, 
if wood or coal is used. 

(2) Prepare the materials. Eoll sugar, if necessary; measure and sift 
dry ingredients, then measure fats and liquids. 

(3) Prepare the pans. Thin aluminum cake pans are the most satis- 
factory. Have the pan very clean and smooth. Brush with a little sweet 
melted fat on a brush or a soft paper. If a smooth surface for frosting is 
desired dredge the pan with flour, then invert and strike sharply on the table 
to remove tlie loose flour. If there is danger that the cake will stick or that 
bottom and sides will cook too fast, line the pan smoothly with thin white 
paper and then grease the paper. 

(4) Mix the cake and have the oven ready just as the cake is finished. 
If using a gas stove, light the gas in time for the oven to be heated to the 
temperature desired. 

Baking Cup and Layer Cakes. Heat a gas oven with both 
burners for ten minutes or until it is moderately hot. Put in 
the cakes. Close the oven door and turn off both burners for 
eight minutes. Then light both burners and turn on half way, 
leaving on for fifteen minutes. Watch the cake carefully and 
if there is danger of its burning lower the heat. Test the cake 
when it seems done ; the exact time needed depends on the range. 
After the cake begins to rise do not jnove it until it becomes 
firm, as it will fall if moved. 



244 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



In a coal or wood stove start the fire in time to have the oven 
moderately hot when the cakes are put in. After they are in 
take off the top lids and turn the damper so tliat the oven will 
not be heated any more for five minutes. Then put on the lids 
and let the heat increase ; it must never be as intense as for bis- 
cuit. If the oven cooks the top of the cake too fast put a pan 
of water on the top shelf in the oven for the first ten minutes. 
If the bottom is too hot cover it with an asbestos mat. If the 
oven is too hot the cake will brown before it can rise, and will 
burst through the center and form a peak ; if not hot enough, the 
cake will not rise well or will fall before the baking is finished. 

Divide the time for cake baking into quarters. During the 
first quarter the cake rises, but does not bro"\\ai ; during the 
second quarter it continues to rise and browns in specks; in the 
third quarter bro"v^ming continues, and it is finished during the 
fourth quarter when the cake shrinks slightly from the pan. 

Testing the Cake. Lift the pan and see if there is a sing- 
ing sound. If there is, the cake has not cooked long enough. 
Test with a wooden toothpick in the thickest part ; if it comes 
out clear, the cake has been sufficiently baked. Cake when done 
shrinks from the pan and comes quickly back into place if 
presssed gently with the tip of the finger. Cup cakes should be 
turned on to a platter to cool and should be served fresh. 

Score the various cakes made, in the following table: 

SCORE CARD FOR CAKE 

General appearance — size, shape, 

icing, etc 10 

Lightness 15 

Crust — color, depth, and texture, 10 
Crumb — moisture, color, grain, 

and texture 20 

Flavor of cake itself 35 

Flavor of cake, including icing 

and filling 10 

Total 100 





STUDENT ' 


S SCORE 































































CAKES AND CAKE MAKING 



* Cocoa Tea Cakes (Class Recipe) 



245 



(For older pui^ils review Exijeriments IV, VII, VIII, XI, XII, and XIII, 
pages 196-198. Also review muffins and measurements.) 

9 tbsp. flour % c. sugar 

% tsp. baking powder 1% tbsp. lard or other cooking fat 

1% tbsi3. cocoa 1 egg 

3 tbsp. milk ^ tsp. salt 

Prepare the pans as for muffins. Sift flour, baking powder, cocoa, and 
salt together. Cream the fat (it may be warmed if very firm) until soft. 
Add sugar gradually and cream until very smooth. Break the egg into a 
cup, add it to the creamed fat and sugar, and beat very thoroughly. When 
light and smooth add a little milk, then a little of the flour mixture, keeping 
the dough thick. Add flour and milk alternately until all are used. Stir 
as little as possible, as too much stirring makes the cake tough. Fill the 
muffin pans a little less than two-thirds full; if filled too full the cake will 
run over. Bake as directed for Cup Cakes, below. 

* Soft Ginger Bread (Class Recipe %) 

(Review Muffins. Compare recipes. How do they differ?) 

1 c. sugar 3 eggs 

31^ c. flour % c. lard or butter 

1 tsp. cinnamon 1 tsp. soda 

% tsp. salt if lard is used 3 tsp. ginger 

1 c. sour milk 1 c. raisins 

1 c. sugar-house molasses 

Proceed as for cocoa tea cakes, adding molasses alternately with milk. 
Add raisins last. They should be cut and well dredged with flour. Spread 
the cake one inch thick in a biscuit pan and bake as directed for layer cake 
for thirty minutes or more. Test as for other cakes. Do not have the oven 
too hot, as cakes with molasses burn easily. If preferred, the cake may be 
baked in muffin pans. If sweet milk instead of sour milk is used omit one- 
half teaspoonful of soda and add two teaspoonfuls of baking powder. 

* Cup Cakes (Class Recipe 1/4) 

(Review beating eggs) 

3 c. flour 2 c. sugar 

3 tsp. baking powder V^ to % c. butter 

1 c. milk 4 eggs 
1 tsp. flavoring 



246 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Wash butter if very salt. Prepare dry ingredients. Cream butter and 
sugar as in cocoa tea cakes. Add to it the egg yolks, beaten with a dover 
egg beater until thick and lemon colored. Add milk and sugar as in coco;i 
tea cakes. Then fold in the egg-vThites which have been beaten stiff with a 
whisk egg beater. Bake as directed for cocoa tea cakes in mufiin pans. 

Layer Cakes 

Turn the cup cake mixture into two ten-inch layer cake pans (two thick 
layers are sufficient) that are from one and one-half to two inches deep. 
Spread the cake in the pan with a spatula, leaving a slight depression in 
the center, and bake as directed for cocoa tea cakes. Turn cakes out on a 
platter and when slightly cool spread one layer with filling, and lay the other 
over it with the right side up. This cake is very nice with orange or pine- 
apple filling. These fillings must be used the day they are made. If a small 
cake is desired make only one layer, cut it in half horizontally, and put 
together with filling. 

Fruit Layer. For a fruit layer add to one-half the cake mixture 1 tbsp. 
molasses; % c. raisins, which have been stoned, cut fine, and floured with 
one and one-third tablespoonfuls of flour; 1 tbsp. of shredded citron; l^^ 
tsp. of cinnamon; % tsp. allspice; % tsp. cloves. Put a light and a dark 
mixture together with one of the chocolate fillings. 

Cake Fillings 

Orange Filling. % c. sugar; 2^2 tbsp. flour; % c. orange juice; 
grated rind of % orange (yellow pait only); 2 tsp. lemon juice; 1 tsp. 
butter. Mix the sugar and flour. Add the fruit juice, the slightly beaten 
egg, and the orange peel. Cook over hot (not boiling) water for ten 
minutes, stirring constantly. Cool and spread on the cake. 

Pineapple Filling. Drain 1 c. grated pineapple in a sieve. Cook the 
juice and % e. sugar to a thick syrup. Add the pineapple and spread 
between the layers of the cake. If a large quantity of filling is desired 
bring the juice to the boiling point and thicken with a little cornstarch, 
adding it to the sugar. Do not cook very long. 

Caramel Filling. See Caramel Frosting, page 366. Add nuts if desired. 

Chocolate Filling. See Chocolate Frosting, page 240. Add nuts if de- 
sired. 

Jelly Filling. A tart jelly makes a very good filling. 

Loaf Cake 

Bake the cup cake mixture in a loaf according to the following di- 
rections : 



CAKES AND CAKE MAKING 247 

For a cake made with butter or other fat, heat the gas oven for five min- 
utes with one burner. Put a jian of hot water on the bottom and put the 
cake on the middle shelf of the oven. Turn the burner down half waj for 
thirty minutes; then turn to full force for twenty minutes. Remove the 
water ten or fifteen minutes before the cake is done, according to the tem- 
I erature of the oven. If the top browns quickly lay a stiff paper over it 
for a while. The gas burners must be regulated according to the gas pres- 
sure. With a low piessure both burners may be used. 

Bake a thin loaf cake for forty minutes, increasing the heat after the 
first twenty minutes. Bake a thick cake at least an hour. Loaf cake requires 
a glower oven than layer cake because it is so thick that a crust will form 
before it rises. When using a wood or coal stove, proceed as above, regu- 
lating the heat according to the directions for cup and layer cakes. 

Cream Puffs (Class Recipe V2) 

I/O c. hot water 14 c. butter 

% c. flour 2 eggs 

Add the butter to the water and bring to the boiling point. Then turn 
the flour in all at once. Stir very briskly until a smooth paste is formed. 
Cook over a low fire for three minutes, stirring continually. Cool. Then 
add the unbeaten eggs, one at a time, beating after each one is added until 
the paste is perfectly smooth. When all the eggs are in, drop batter from 
tho tip of a tablespoon on to a very cold baking sheet or a biscuit pan that 
has been well greased. Leave a space between each puff to allow for expan- 
sion. Bake for thirty or forty minutes in a moderately hot oven. When 
done the puffs should be light, dry shells. If the oven is too cold the egg 
will cook too much before the batter jDuffs; if too hot the egg will brown 
too much and a very disagreeable flavor will develop. If there is danger 
of burning, the heat may be reduced after the cakes puff well. 

When puffs are cold open them at the side and fill with the cream 
given below. Barely moisten the top with beaten egg-white and dust with 
powdered sugar. Serve the day they are cooked, as custards and other egg 
mixtures may develop ptomaines if kept too long. 

Cream for Filling (Class Recipe V2) 

1 c. scalded milk li c. flour 

1 egg 6 tbsp. sugar 

1 tbsp. butter 6 drops vanilla 

Make a white sauce of the milk and flour and cook for fifteen minutes, 
stirring frequently. Beat the egg and sugar together. Add the hot paste 
gradually to it. Eeturn to the boiler and stir until the egg thickens. Add 
the butter and, when cool, the vanilla. Then fill the puffs. 



248 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What difference is there in the beating of eggs for sponge and angel 
cakes and for cream puffs? What is the texture of the sponge cake? Wliy 
is the shell of the cream puff not easy to digest? Why is the filling cooked 
in the double boiler? 



Drop Cookies 




lYs e. flour 


Vs c. milk 


11/4 tsp. baking powder 


% c. sugar 


1 tsp. flavoring 


% c butter 


1 egg 





Mix as directed for cocoa tea cakes. Drop a teaspoonful of batter in the 
center of a three-inch space. Bake in a moderately quick oven till a rich 
hrown. 

* Shakespeare Cookies (Class Eecipe V2 for Group of Six) 

Flour to make a soft dough 1 c sour milk 

(6 to 8 c.) 2 c. sugar 

1 tsp. soda 1 tbsp. vanilla 

1 egg y2 or % c. lard 

Proceed as for cocoa tea cakes. Sift the soda with three cups of flour. 
Add the milk and flour alternately. Then add enough more flour to make 
a soft dough that can be rolled easily. Chill and then toss on a lightly 
floured board until well coated with flour to prevent sticking. Roll to a 
paper thickness and cut with a two and one-half inch biscuit cutter. (Lift 
dough from board occasionally while rolling.) Bake in an oven slightly 
cooler than for biscuit until a delicate brown is secured. Cookies contain 
sugar so they burn easily. If thick cookies are preferred to thin ones the 
dough may be rolled to one-fourth inch thickness. 

Vanilla CooMes. Omit the flavoring and spray the cookies aiter they 
are baked with vanilla extract from a perfumery atomizer. 

Sugar CooTcies. Sift a little sugar over the dough before cutting. Pass 
the rolling-pin lightly over it and cut with a large cutter. 

Spice CooMes. Divide the cooky dough into four parts after the three 
cups of flour are added. To one part add a tablespoonful of mixed spices 
Then finish as directed. (Mixed Spices: ^2 tsp. cloves; % tsp. allspice; 1 
tsp. mace; 1 tsp. nutmeg; 3 tsp. cinnamon. Sift together well and keep 
in a tightly corked bottle.) 

Chocolate CooMes. To one-fourth of the dough add 2 tbsp. of powdered 
cocoa. Finish as directed for spice cookies. 

Cocoanut CooMes. To one-fourth the dough add % c. fresh grated 
cocoanut. Finish as above. Finish remainder of dough as you would 
Shakespeare, vanilla, or sugar cookies. 



CAKES AND CAKE MAKING 249 

CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER 

In making these cakes the two important points are : to mix 
carefully so that sufficient air will be folded in to make them 
light, and to bake slowly and thoroughly. If carelessly made 
they will not rise well, and if baked in too quick an oven they 
will shrink. If taken out too soon the egg will shrivel and the 
cakes Avill fall. 

Baking Angel and Sponge Cakes. If a gas oven is used heat 
it with one burner for five minutes before putting in the cake. 
Put a pan of hot water on the lower shelf. Put the cake in the 
oven and turn the burner to one-third its force. Do not open 
the oven door for twenty minutes. Inspect the cake. If it is 
well risen (as it should be) turn the burner to full force and bake 
for thirty minutes. Take out the water five minutes before the 
cake is done. Test it by pressing gently with the finger. It 
should come back into place. Sponge and angel cakes shrink 
from the pan when done. If overcooked, they will be dry; if 
undercooked, moist and pasty. Invert the pan for a few mo- 
ments and the cake will come out easily. To slice angel or 
sponge cake, use two silver forks, gently pulling the cake apart 
into suitable servings. 

*Hot Water Sponge Cake (Class Recipe 1/2) 

1 c. flour 1 c. sugar 
1% tsp. baking powder Ys tsp. salt 

6 tbsp. hot water the grated peel of ^^ lemon 

2 eggs (yellow part only) 

Roll and sift the sugar four times. Sift flour, salt, and baking powder 
together four times. Beat the egg yolks until thick and lemon colored. Add 
sugar. Beat well and then add flour and hot water alternately. Fold in the 
whites of eggs and bake in muflBn pans as directed for cocoa tea cakes, or 
bake in two layers. 

Jelly Roll 

Use the recipe above. Turn into a shallow oblong tin about eight by 
ten inches and bake for about fifteen minutes according to directions for 
layer cake. When done turn on to a board covered with a clean cloth, and 
with the point of a sharp knife cut off the crust at the sides. Spread with 
a tart jelly and roll immediately, using the cloth to hold it. Do not mash 
the roll, Dust with powdered sugar and serve while fresh, 



250 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Sponge Cake 

1 c. sugar 6 eggs 

I'g tsp. salt grated rind of half a lemon 

1 tsp. lemon juice (yellow part only) 

Ic. flour 

Sift the flour six times. Sift the sugar. Measure and roll. Then sift 
six times, discarding the coarse grains. Beat the eggs until thick and lemon 
colored. Beat in the sugar and salt, and the lemon juice and peel. Fold 
in the whites of eggs. Sprinkle half the flour over the cake and fold it in 
very carefully (See Cutting and Folding Eggs, page 131). Then fold in the 
remainder of the flour. Turn into a long, narrow, lightly greased pan. Have 
the dough almost as thick as you desire the cake to be when done. Spread 
in the pan as directed for layer cake. 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

Why are cakes difficult to digest? If food is not well digested does the 
body get full benefit from it? What is the chief food element in cookies? 
What other elements are present? What is the food value of sponge cake? 
Which would increase the protein allowance more, cookies or sponge cake? 
Are cakes expensive? How often do you eat them? 

Why is sugar rolled and sifted? Give directions for prej)aring cake 
pans. Tell how to beat the whites of eggs. How to cut and fold them in. 
(See page 131.) 

Tell how to bake cup or layer cakes in a gas oven. In a coal or wood 
stove. What makes a cake coarse? What causes it to fall? What causes 
it to run over the edges of the pan? Give test for butter cakes. For 
sponge cakes. Why not let the water boil under the orange filling? 

Give proportions of fat, sugar, flour, and milk in cup cake mixture. 
What change in this proportion was made when egg yolks only were used? 
(See Yellow Cake, page 352.) Compare methods of mixing cocoa tea 
cakes and cup cakes. What difference in texture did you observe? Compare 
the recipes for the sponge cake and the hot water sponge cake. Compare 
the cost of four eggs with the cost of one and one-half teaspoonfuls of 
baking powder. 

Supplementary Becipes 

Yellow Cake (p. 352) Angel Cake (p. 354) 

Wliite Loaf Cake (p. 352) Angel Cakelets (p. 354) 

A Tender Loaf Cake (p. 353) Meringues (p. 355) 

*Fruit Cake (p. 353) Pecan Macaroons (p. 355) 
A Cheap Fruit Cake (p. 354) 



CHAPTER XYIII 

SIMPLE DESSERTS 

A dessert is served at the end of the meal, and it should be 
selected according to the dishes that have been served during 
the meal. If a heavy dessert follows a rich meal one is tempted 
to eat more than he needs. Fruit, not too heavily sugared, is 
one of the safest desserts. Exceptions to this are bananas, which 
are rich in starch, and dried fruits which contain much sugar. 
(See Table, page 84.) Fruit furnishes the needed salts and 
acids. 

A combination of canned or fresh fruits w^ith a small quantity 
of sponge cake makes a pleasing dessert. Simple puddings 
containing milk and eggs may supplement a meal which con- 
tains a scanty supply of meat, as they furnish the additional 
protein needed. Desserts rich in starch and sugar, such as apple 
or tapioca puddings, cornstarch puddings, and Washington pie, 
should not be served at a meal where rice, potatoes, or dried 
beans are used, but should follow a meal containing meat and 
green vegetables. Desserts rich in fat, such as whipped cream 
in various forms, or pies, should not come at the end of a menu 
containing roast pork or other fat meats. Never combine acids 
Avith starches in a dessert. Desserts should be daintily served. 

SpongG Cake with Fruit Juice 

Cut stale sponge cake into rounds, moisten with strawberry juice, put 
a spoonful of whii^ped cream over each round, and serve. The juice of 
other fruits may be u«ed. 

Strawberry Juice. Warm three cups of well mashed berries very slowly, 
so that the juice will run easily. Crush through a sieve. Add three- 
fourths cup of sugar, and keep in a cool place until ready to serve. 

* Peach Pudding 

Dip the tops of rounds of sponge cake into melted butter. Lay two halves 
of a canned or fresh peach on each. Place a blanched almond in the center 
and pour a little sauce over all. 

251 



252 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

* Pudding Sauce No. 1 

(Eeview Experiment VI, page 117) 

1 c. juice from peaches 2 or 3 tbsp, sugar, according 

1 tbsp. cornstarch to acidity of juice 

1 small piece of orange peel 

Bring the juice to the boiling point. Add to cornstarch mixed with 
sugar. Eeturn to the saucepan and stir over a fire until it boils. Add 
orange peel. Cook for ten minutes and serve. 

* Cottage Pudding 

(Eeview Experiment VI, page 117) 

Use Cup Cake recipe, allowing three-fourths the quantity of sugar. Serve 
with lemon sauce. 

Lemon Sauce 

% c sugar IV2 tbsp. cornstarch 

2 tbsp. butter 1 tbsp. cornstarch 

2 tbsp. lemon juice a grating of nutmeg 

1 c. boiling water 

Proceed as for Pudding Sauce No. 1. Cook for five minutes. Add 
butter and flavorings and serve. 

* Cornstarch Pudding (Class Recipe Vi) 
(Eeview Experiments I, II, III, IV, V, and VI, pages 116, 117) 

^4: C. cornstarch i/i c. sugar 

2 c. scalded milk Vs tsp. salt 

Mix cornstarch, sugar, and salt. Add hot milk gradually, stirring con- 
stantly. Cook over a low fire for fifteen minutes, stirring occasionally 
after it thickens. Turn into individual molds dipped in cold water. When 
firm turn from the molds and serve with whipped cream sauce or witli 
plain thin cream. This recipe may be varied by folding the beaten whites 
of two eggs into the hot pudding. Mold and serve with a soft custard for 
a sauce. (See page 132.) This will almost double the quantity of pudding. 

Whipped Cream Sauce (Class Recipe V2) 

1^ c. milk 14 c. cream 

Vi c. sugar l^ tsp. vanilla extract 

Dissolve the sugar in the milk, whip the cream, and beat it into the milk. 



SIMPLE DESSEETS 253 

* Prune Pudding (Class Recipe 1/4) 

24 medium-sized prunes 2 c. cold water 

1 c. sugar 1 in. stick cinnamon 

IVs c. boiling water 14 C. cornstarch 

% c. cold water 1 tsp. lemon juice 

Pick over and wash the prunes. Soak for one hour in cold water. Cook 
until soft. Take out the stones. (A few of the pits may be mashed and 
added to the pulp if desired.) Simmer prune pulp, cinnamon, and boiling 
water together for ten minutes. Add cornstarch rubbed to a paste with the 
cold water. Cook for five minutes and add lemon juice. Mold and serve 
with whipped cream. 

If preferred the skins of the prunes may be removed. 

* Bread Pudding (Class Recipe 1/3) 

(Eeview Cup Custard, page 132) 

A bread pudding properly cooked is a nutritious and easily digested 
dessert; what is its food value? 

3 eggs 3 c. milk 

1/2 c. sugar 3 thin slices buttered bread 

% e. raisins if desired or % c. stale crumbs 

any desired flavoring iV tsp. salt 

Scald the milk. Butter the bread and cut each slice into three strips. 
Lay the bread in a baking dish. Beat the eggs slightly. Add sugar and 
salt. Pour the milk gradually over it. Add raisins if they are to be used. 
Pour the liquid over the bread and let stand for twenty minutes. Then 
place the dish in a pan of hot water and bake in a moderate oven until 
the custard is set. Serve warm or cold. A meringue (see page 133) may 
be spread over the top and browned. This pudding may be steamed. What 
is the proportion of milk to eggs? What is the thickness or consistency of 
the pudding when done? Compare with cup custard. 

Caramel Bread Pudding 

Proceed as above, omitting the raisins and two tablespoonfuls of the 
sugar, and adding four tablespoonfuls of caramel syrup. (See page 237.) 

*Rice Pudding 

(Eeview Eice) 

1 tbsp. rice V4, c. raisins 

1 tbsp. sugar ^ tsp. salt 

2 c. milk 



254 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Wash the rice. Put it in a baking dish. Pour in the milk and soak 
for half an hour. Add raisins and sugar, and cook in a slow oven until thick 
and creamy. With a spoon occasionally cut the top skin down into the 
pudding. The pudding must not boil. Serve with cream or milk. 

Tapioca Pudding (Class Recipe 1/4) 

% c. tapioca % c. sugar 

1 c. raisin Ic. cold water 

3 c. boiling water % tsp, salt 

a small piece of orange peel if desired 

Soak the tapioca for one hour in the cold water in the upper kettle of a 
double boiler. Add the hot water while stirring briskly. Cook over the fire 
for fifteen minutes. Add sugar and salt, raisins and orange peel, and steam 
in double boiler for one and one-fourth hours. Turn into a bowl and serve 
when cool with milk or cream. 



Apple Tapioca 

Proceed as above. Pour the boiled tapioca over three thinly sliced 
apples in a baking dish and bake until the tapioca is clear. 

Tapioca is made from the juice of the roots of South American cassava. 
It is largely starch. (See Table, page 116.) 



Steamed Suet Pudding (Class Recipe 1/4 for Group of Four) 

2% c. flour 1 c. chopped raisins 

2 tsp. cinnamon 1 tsp. soda 

1 c. molasses 1 c. sour milk 
1 e. suet 

Sift the dry ingredients together. Pick the suet apart, removing all 
membranes, and chop fine. Add to the flour mixture. Mix the milk and 
molasses, stir it into the flour, add the raisins, and fill well buttered molds 
two-thirds full. This quantity makes two puddings large enough for an 
ordinary family. These puddings may be kept in a cool place for several 
days and reheated for serving. The molds with a tube in the center are the 
best, but a lard pail or a one-pound baking powder can may be used. For 
class work a small baking powder can may be used for a group of four. 
Steam for two hours according to directions for steaming brown bread. 
Serve with liquid or hard sauce. 



SIMPLE DESSEKTS 255 

Pudding Sauce No. 2 

1 e. sugar 2 tbsp. flour 

y^ tsp. nutmeg 2 c. hot water 

1/4 tsp. cinnamon 

Proceed as for Puddinj^ Sauce No. 1. Mix spices in flour and cook for 
ten minutes. 

Hard Sauce 

1 c. sugar % c. butter 

V.i tsp. nutmeg or cinnamon 

Cream the butter and sugar well together and add flavoring. 

Fruit Shortcake 

(Review Biscuit) 

Make a crust like biscuit, using four teaspoonfuls of baking powder and 
four tablespoonfuls of lard to one pint of flour. Moisten with one cup of 
milk. This crust will be very soft and must be handled as little as possible. 
Roll the dough quite thin and cut in half if for a square pan. Lay one 
sheet in a greased pan. Brush the top with melted butter and lay the 
other half over it. Bake in a quick oven for twelve or fifteen minutes. 
When done pull the cake apart. J^ay one half, crust side down, on a large 
platter. Spread with butter, and put on a layer of sweetened fruit such 
as peaches or strawberries; lay on the other half, crust side down. Butter 
and cover with fruit or whipped cream, or both, and serve immediately. 

For a round pan divide the dough before rolling and pat into shape. 

Individual Shortcakes 

Cut the dough with a large biscuit cutter and finish as above. 

Strawberry Shortcake with Meringue 

Use two boxes of berries crushed slightly and sweetened; spread the top 
with whipped cream or strawberry meringue. For the meringue use one- 
lialf cup powdered sugar, one-half cup crushed berries, and the white of one 
egg. Crush the berries and drain off the juice (it may be used on the cake). 
Put the egg, sugar, and berries in a bowl and beat all until very stiff, then 
heap it on the cake. 



256 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

QUESTIONS AND PKOBLEMS 

Wliy sliould desserts be carefully selected? What is the chief food ele- 
ment in most desserts? Whicli is the richer in protein — bread pudding or 
rice pudding with eggs? (See page 360.) What desserts would you select 
to follow a meal with an abundance of meat? To follow a meal where 
no meat was served? Should bananas be served after a meal rich in 
starch? Give a dessert that might be served after a meal where roast pork 
was served. Write a menu with which you could serve cornstarch pudding. 
One where rice pudding with eggs would be appropriate. Give menus using 
cup custard, apple dumplings (see page 361), a dish rich in whipped 
cream. Which is the more indigestible — the puddings just mentioned or the 
steamed puddings? Would you serve suet pudding in hot weather? Which 
would be the most easily digested — suet pudding, apple dumplings, or 
fruit shortcake? Why? Why is lemon pie very indigestible? Why not 
serve acid sauces with cornstarch or tapioca pudding? Make a list of the 
puddings given that you could use often in your menus without overtaxing 
the digestion. Add to the list any other desserts given elsewhere in the 
book. (See Eggs and Frozen Desserts.) Note under each title the quan- 
tity, cost, and time required for preparation. 

S u pplem e n tary Becip es 

Angel Cake with Strawberries (p. 360) Individual Plum Pudding (p. 361) 

Charlotte Eusse (p. 360) * Apple Dumplings, No. 1 (p. 361) 

Date Pudding (p. 360) Apple Dumplings, No. 2 (p. 362) 

*Eice Pudding with Eggs (p. 360) Peach Shortcake (p. 362) 



CHAPTER XIX 

GELATIN AND FROZEN DESSERTS 

GELATIN DESSERTS 

Gelatin jellies owe their food value to the sugar they con- 
tain. A pound of jelly has a fuel value of 405 calories. Com- 
pare this witli a pound of wheat bread, which has a value of 
1205 calories. Weigh and measure your jelly. What part of 
a pound is a serving? What does a five cent loaf of white 
bread weigh in your city? 

IMPORTANT POINTS IN MAKING GELATIN JELLIES 

1. Buy a good grade of gelatin. 

2. UFe the proper proportion of gelatin to liquid. This varies with the 
different brands and depends also on the time for thickening, the tempera- 
ture, the moisture in the air, and the fruit used. The usual quantity is one- 
half box, or one ounce (from two to two and one-half tablespoonfuls) of 
granulated gelatin to one quart of liquid; if too much gelatin is used the 
jelly will be tough. Where the jelly must be made quickly use three and 
one-half cups of liquid to an ounce of gelatin. 

3. Soak the dry gelatin well in cold water. Gelatin will take up four 
times its weight of water. If milk or broth is used a little more liquid will 
be needed. About four parts of water to one of gelatin is the average 
quantity. 

4. Dissolve the gelatin carefully in the hot liquid with as little stir- 
ring as possible. 

5. Use earthenware or china molds. Why? 

6. Strain jelly through double thicknesses of cheesecloth wrung out of 
hot water. 

7. Keep jelly in a cool place away from the dust. It will set in from 
three to five hours. Jelly cooled in a dusty place may liquefy. Why? (See 
page 30.) 

257 



258 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

8, In (lamp or warm weather use a little more gelatin than ixi cold 
weather, 

9. Gelatin combined with whipped cream or eggs miut be of the same 
consistency as the mixture to which it is added or it will sink to the bottom 
of the mold. If too thick it will not blend but will be in lumps. 

Cooking gelatin is apt to spoil the flavor. Gelatin boiled for 
a short time will become firm when cooled, but if the boiling is 
loi.g continued its gelatinizing power is lessened and finally 
destroyed. Acids should not be added to gelatin until it is par- 
tially cooled ])ecause they act on the gelatin in such a manner 
that the gelatinizing power is lessened. Pineapple disrsolves 
gelatin as it does other proteins and cannot be molded with it 
unless it is to be used very promptly. 

* Lemon Jelly with Bananas (Class Recipe) 

Beginning pupils may make plain lemon jelly. One custard cup of jelly 
is molded by each pupil. Allow one-half of a banana for each desk. The 
number of lemons will depend on the quality. It is well to measure the juice 
of one lemon and see how many lemcns will be needed. Ice will be needed 
so that the jelly can be chilled and the lesson finished in the allotted time. 

1 tbsp. granulated gelatin ,S tbsp. cold water 
% c. boiling water i/4 c. sugar 

2 tbsp. lemon juice the thin yellow rind from VI lemon 

Soak the gelatin in a small bowl in the cold water. Pour the boiling 
water over the sugar in a small, smooth saucepan. Add the lemon peel and 
boil until slightly yellow. Pour this over the gelatin, and stir occasionally 
until dissolved. When slightly cool add the lemon juice and strain through 
cheesecloth into custard cups that have been dipped in cold water. Set them 
in a mixture of ice and salt to become firm. 

How much gelatin to a quart of water Avas used in the class recipe? 
What is the usual proportion ? Write a reeij^e for lemon jelly for home use 
which contains one quart of liquid and tlie proper proportion of gelatin. 



* 



Jeliy Molded with Fruit 



Strain a little of the jelly into each mold and the remainder into a 
cup. Place both in a mixture of ice and salt. Add a few thin slices 
of banana to the mold. When the jelly is set add another layer of gelatin 
from the cup, then put in more slices of banana. Continue this until the 



GELATIN AND FEOZEN DESSEETS 259 

mold is full. If the jelly in the cup is getting too firm put it into a pan of 
water that is not very cold. Let the molds stand as long as possible after 
they have set. An hour is best, but if the time is limited, they may be 
removed from the mold very quickly. 

To Remove Jelly From Mold. Pass a knife around the top 
of the mold to loosen llie jelly. Stand the mold in hot water for 
a few moments. Wipe dry. Turn to one side to see if the jelly 
is loosened. Place a saucer over the top and turn the whole 
upside down. Then lift off tlie mold. 

* Strawberry Bavarian Cream 

2 tbsp. granulated gelatin Vj ^- <'o\<\ water 

1 pt. strawberry ]»ulp and juice VL' c. powdered sugar 

1 pt. cream 

Soak the gelatin in the cold water. Wash the strawberries, drain, and 
mash through a sieve. Add the sugar to this juice. Stand the gelatin over 
the hot water until dissolved. Then add it to the strawberry juice. Set 
the bowl in ice water or in cracked ice and as soon as it begins to set fold 
in the cream which has been whipped stiff. Turn into a mold and let stand 
for two hours. I^ay on a flat dish and serve plain. 

Strawberry Cream Molded with Orange Jelly 

2 tbsp. gelatin % c. cold water 
11/2 c. boiling water 1 c. sugar 

1^2 c. orange juice 3 tbsp. lemon juice 

a little shaved orange peel 

Proceed as for lemon jell}', but leave the orange peel in the syrup barely 
long enough to flavor it slightly. 

To mold the jelly select two molds of the same shape, one smaller than 
the other. Dip the larger one in cold water and pack in ice ; then pour some 
of the gelatin in the bottom, having it as thick as that in the space between 
the two molds. When it hardens, dip the smaller mold in cold water and 
placo it in the larger one on the gelatin. Fill the inner mold with cracked 
ice, and pour in enough very cold jelly to fill the space between the molds. 
Let stand for two hours. Eemove the cracked ice and dip the water from 
the inner mold. Wipe the inside of the inner mold with a hot cloth. Loosen 
the jelly around the top and lift out the mold. Fill the space with straw- 
berry Bavarian cream, and let the mold stand in ice for two hours. When 
ready to serve plunge in warm water for a few moments and turn into a cut 
glass dish. 



260 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

From what is gelatin made (see page 149) ? What does it cost per 
pound? What is the fuel value of a pound of gelatin? Of a pound of sugar? 
How many calories of fuel value in one quart of lemon jelly? How many 
calories does a person get who eats one-sixth of a quart of jelly? What 
does it cost? Which is of higher food value, a serving of lemon jelly or 
two sweet oranges? 

How much cold water is needed for soaking one tablespoonful of gelatin? 
How much liquid for dissolving the same amount of gelatin? Why does 
dust sometimes cause jelly to liquefy ? Why do gelatin mixtures with 
cream, beaten egg, and other liquids sometimes lump? 

Why were ice and salt used to pack the jelly made at school? 

FROZEN DESSERTS 

Ice cream and sherbet if eaten after a heavy meal retard 
digestion because of their richness and because they lower the 
temperature of the stomach. They should be eaten very slowly. 
If used as dessert choose them according to the meal that pre- 
cedes them. Ice cream would not be appropriate on a rich 
menu; a sherbet or water ice would be more suitable. It is a 
mistake to think that ice cream is a light dish with little food 
value. It is usually of high food value, depending, of course, 
on its ingredients. Compute the food value of one-fifth quart 
(the amount usually served to one person) of Philadelphia, 
French, and plain ice cream. 

For invalids ice cream should be served as a meal alone. If 
taken very slowly it is an agreeable way in which they may 
take milk, eggs, and cream. 

FREEZING MIXTURE 

Experiment I. Surround a tin measuring cup half full of water with 
cracked ice. Test with a thermometer. How long is it before the tempera- 
ture begins to fall? When does it become stationary? 

Experiment II. Repeat Experiment I. Use one tablespoonful of coarse 
salt to one cup of cracked ice. 

Experiment III. Repeat Experiment I. Use one tablespoonful of 
salt to four tablespoonfuls of ice. Note the difference in rate in fall of 
temperature. Is there any difference in final temperature obtained in Ex- 
periments II and III? 



GELATIN AND FROZEN DESSERTS 261 

The water was cooled because its heat was used to melt the ice ; the ice 
melted more rapidly when salt was used. Salt has a great aflSnity for 
water and thus the heat was taken from the water very rapidly. 



PROPORTIONS OF SALT AND ICE 

For Ice Cream. Use three parts of finely cracked ice and 
one part of coarse salt for freezing ice cream and ices where a 
fine grain is desired. Large pieces of ice with fine salt will melt 
slowly and will require much time. 

For Frappes and Water Ices. Where coarse grain is de- 
sired use equal parts of ice and salt. 

For Packing". After the cream is frozen use four parts of 
ice to one of salt. 

FREEZING ICE CREAM 

Scald and cool the can and pour in the liquid. Fill the ean 
not more than two-thirds full, as liquids expand when frozen 
(See Ice, page 75) and the cream will run over if too much 
is put in. Crack the ice fine, using a bag of heavy duck 
and a mallet. Put it into a pan and mix the salt with it. 
Place the can in the freezer. Put on the lid and turn the crank 
several times to see if it runs smootJily. Set the freezer in a large 
pan on a table of convenient height. Pack the ice and salt closely 
around the can, turning occasionally. The packing should come 
nearly to the top of the can. If only a little cream is to be 
frozen the packing should be just a little above the cream. Do 
not draw off the water while freezing the mixture. Add more 
ice and salt, if needed. 

Turn the freezer slowly at first. If turned too rapidly the 
cream will not be smooth. After it has begun to freeze turn 
faster. When the cream is quite firm wipe the top carefully with 
a damp cloth. Remove the lid, take out the dasher, and scrape 
the cream from the sides of the can ; press it down firmly and 
cover with a waxed paper. Put on the cover and stop the hole in 
the top with a cork or paper. Drain off the water, pack with ice 



262 '^^^^ SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

and salt, cover with a heavy cloth, and let stand for at least an 
hour to ripen. 

Freeze sherbets, water ices, and frappes as directed for ice 
cream ; turn the crank rapidly for a few moments, then turn a 
little every five minutes until stiff. 

Ice Cream Without a Freezer. Ice cream may be frozen in a pound 
baking powder can inside a five-pound lard pail. Fill the space about the 
can with ice and salt, then cover closely. Scrape the cream from the 
sides of the can, and stir twice at intervals while freezing. A glass jar 
may be used instead of the baking powder can but it must not be too 
full or it will crack. 

To Remove Ice Cream from Mold. Dip the can in cold 
water. Wipe it dry and invert on a cold platter. The small 
brick molds may be handled in the same wa\'. 

MOLDING ICE CREAM 

When the cream is very firm it may be packed in molds 
Individual molds in elaborate forms are too difficult for begin- 
ners to use. They should use either brick or melon molds. Scald 
the mold. Cover closely and pack in ice and salt until very 
cold. Fill witli cream, packing it very firmly. Cover it witli a 
piece of heavy buttered muslin. Put the unbuttered side next 
to the cream. Put on the lid and l)ind a narrow strip of muslin 
that has been dipped in melted butter or otlier sw^et fat 
around the joining of the lid and the mold. Pack immediately 
in ice and salt (half of each) and let stand for two liours. If to 
be kept longer, repack. If two colors are used put the color 
that is to be on top in the mold first. 

* Philadelphia Cream (Class Recipe Vs) 

(Review Milk and Freozing Mixture) 

1 qt, thin cream % c. sugar 

1 tbsp. vanilla few grains salt 

Mix the cream and the sugar, and stir until dissolved. Flavor, and 
freeze. Scalded cream is smoother than tlie uncooked cream, but if thin 
cream is to be used it will seem richer iinscahletl. What is the proportion 
of sugar to one quart of liquid'? 



GELATIN AND FROZEN DESSERTS 263 

* Plain Ice Cream (Review Custards) 

2 tbi^i). liour % c. sugar 

-jV tsi-. salt o eggs 

1 c. cream ',) c. milk 

1 tsp, ilavoring 

Make a white sauce of t".:c milk ami Hour. Cook ten minutes. Add egg 
l^eaten with sugar and proceetl as for custard. When cool add cream and 
Ilavoring. Why is more sugar added than in the preceding recipe? 



French Ice Cream 

2 c. milk 6 egg yolks 

2 c. cream 1 tsp. vanilla 

1 c. sugar 

Proceed as for plain ice cream. 

* Chocolate Ice Cream 

Melt tW'O or four squares of unsweetened chocolate. Add to it part 
of the sugar. Then add it to the hot cream, milk, or custard in Philadelphia, 
French, or Plain Ice Cream. 

Strawberry Ice Cream 

Hull and wash two boxes of strawberries. Crush through a sieve, and 
add one-half cup of sugar. Add this to Philadelphia ice cream when frozen 
to a mush. Do not add fruit to any but pure creams that are very rich. 

* Lemon Sherbet 

2% c. sugar 4 c. water 

y2 c. lemon Juice grated rind of 1 lemon 
2 very fresh egg-whites (yellow part only) 

1 c. shredded pineapple 

Cook sugar, water, and lemon rind for five minutes. Add lemon juice 
and pineapple and when nearly cold strain through cheesecloth. When 
frozen to a mush add eggs beaten very stiff. A small can of cherries well 
aired and cut fine, a cup of fresh cherries stoned and chopped, or the 
juice and pulp of three oranges may be added. What is the proportion of 
sugar to lemon juice? How much water is used? Is this the same propor- 
tion that is used in lemonade? ' 



264 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Cafe Frappe 

1 egg-wliite 4 c. boiling water 

1/^ c. cold water 1 e. sugar 

V2 c, ground coffee 

Proceed as for boiled coffee. (See page 80.) Strain, add sugar, cool, 
and freeze as directed for frappes. Serve in tall glasses with whipped 
cream sweetened and flavored. 

QUESTIONS AND PKOBLEMS 

Why are ice creams objectionable after a heavy meal? What ices would 
you select for dinner? Why not put fruit in French ice cream? Wliich is 
the best ice cream for an invalid? Why does a mixture of ice and salt cool? 
Compare the cost of ice cream salt and table salt. Give directions for 
freezing ice cream. Water ice. For packing them. Give proportions of 
ice and salt used. 

Supplementary Recipes 

Caramel "Cream (p. 363) Orange Ice fp. 362) 

Grape Juice Sherbet (p. 362) Peach Ice Cream (p. 363) 



CHAPTER XX 

RULES OF ETIQUETTE AND SERVING 

Make the table as neat and attractive as possible. Not only 
does a dignified and courteous serving of the family meal aid 
digestion, but it teaches a refinement of manner that distin- 
guishes the well-bred from others. Children should not be 
allov/ed to eat hastily and rush away to play ; if the meal is 
very long they may be excused upon a quiet request. 

Never speak of unpleasant subjects at table, such as death, 
disease, and great disasters. Cultivate the art of conversation 
at table; save amusing stories for the occasion. The old rule 
that children should be seen and not heard should not apply at 
the home table. They should be expected to do their part in 
the conversation, as they will gain much social training in this 
way. 

A Dinner Invitation. An invitation to dinner must be 
graciously accepted or declined immediately with regret. An 
invitation should not be accepted conditionally, as the number 
invited is limited and the hostess may wish to fill the place of 
an invited guest Avho cannot be sure of being present. If one 
accepts, nothing except illness, or some equally urgent reason, 
is an excuse for not attending. One should reach the house not 
less than five minutes or more than fifteen minutes before the 
hour and should remain for half an hour or more after the 
dinner. Never he late. 

Formal dinner invitations are written in the third person ; 
other dinner invitations may be given verbally or by an infor- 
mal note. (Ask the English teacher to give a lesson on formal 
and informal invitations. Be very particular about the appear- 
ance of the notes.) 

265 



266 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

TABLE ETIQUETTE 

The hostess will indicate the chair one is to occupy. Stand 
at the back or side of the chair until she gives the signal. Then 
be seated from the left; arise from the same side. Gentlemen 
arrange chairs for the ladies and remain standing until they 
are seated. If the ladies withdraw from the dining room before 
the gentlemen, the gentlemen rise. 

In sitting at the table place the chair far enough away to 
bend forward without touching the table. Then there will be 
no temptation to put the elbows on it. Sit erect and keep the 
feet on the floor. 

When the dinner is over put the napkin loosely at the side 
of your plate, unless you are to be a guest for following meals ; 
in this case, fold the napkin. Handle it with as little display 
as possible. Do not put it on the table until the hostess lays 
hers down. 

If in doubt about any point follow the example of the hostess. 

Do not play with the silver or put the hands on the table. 

One should not reach across the table in front of one's 
neighbor. 

In asking to have anything passed mention the name of the 
person spoken to. In offering to serve anything say ^'May I help 
you?" "May I offer you?" "Let me give you." In refusing 
food never say "I do not like that;" say "Thank you, I do not 
wish any." 

Be attentive and courteous to the other guests even if they 
are not congenial to you. This courtesy is due the hostess. If 
one must leave the table before the other guests, ask permission 
of the hostess. 

Keep the knife across the edge of the plate when it is not in 
use. It is used only for cutting. The fork is held in the left 
hand with the tines down when the right hand is used for cut- 
ting food with the knife. Do not cut or mix all the food at once. 
Cut just what is to be eaten at the time. Use the fork to cut 
everything soft. Lay the fork across the plate when not in use. 
next to the sharp edge of the knife. 



RULES OF ETIQUETTE AND SERVING 267 

One hand at a time may be put to the mouth when eating 
chicken from the bone, celery, asparagus, corn from the cob 
(the cobs should be cut in short lengths), lettuce rolled and 
dipped in dressing, radishes, and bread. Do not take more than 
two mouthfuls in succession while the hand is up. 

Do not butter all the bread at once, but break in pieces and 
butter as eaten. Keep bread on the bread and butter plate or 
on the dinner plate ; never on the tablecloth. 

Do not pound salt shakers on the table to loosen the salt. 
Take salt from a salt cellar with a salt spoon or the tip of a 
knife. Put it on the plate ; never on the tablecloth. Never dip 
food in salt used by others. 

Do not drink from the spoon ; use it for stirring only. It 
may be used to see that a beverage is properly sweetened. Take 
food from the side of the spoon; never from the tip. Do not 
leave the spoon in the cup. Lay it on the saucer at the right 
and parallel to the handle of the cup. 

In eating soup dip aw^ay from the body, and take it from the 
side of the spoon. Do not put bread or crackers in soup. 

Do not blow upon any food to cool it. Never pour hot 
beverages into a saucer. 

Do not make a noise when eating food. 

Drink from the water glass held in the right hand with the 
fingers around the tumbler, near the bottom. Drink only a 
little at a time. Do not drain the glass at one drinking. 

Eat with the mouth closed, and do not try to speak with 
food in the mouth. 

In sending the plate back for a second helping lay the knife 
and fork across it and a little to one side. 

Keep the plate neat. Do not scrape the plate or tilt dishes 
to remove the last bit of food. 

SETTING AND DECORATING THE TABLE 

The Dining Room. Have the dining room clean and well 
ventilated. Have the tablecloth and napkins spotless, even if 
nothing better than white oilcloth and paper napkins are to be 



268 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

had. Adjust shades or curtains so that the light is not in the 
eyes of those seated at the table. Put chairs up to, but never 
under, the table. 

The sideboard, on which is arranged needed silver, china, 
and finger bowls, should be covered with a perfectly laundered 
cloth. Hot dishes are not put on the sideboard. 

The serving table should be protected by an asbestos pad, 
then covered with a smooth linen cloth. On it place serving 
trays, hot dishes, and other food. 

Everything should be conveniently placed before dinner is 
announced. 

Setting the Table. First cover the table with a silence 
cloth or a quilted or asbestos pad. The tablecloth should be 
laundered without starch. (See Laundering.) 

Place the center of the cloth in the center of the table, and 
have opposite sides the same distance from the floor. 

The Decorations. The table may be made attractive by 
the use of fruit or flowers as a centerpiece. For the breakfast 
or luncheon table place a dish of fruit, a low vase of flowers, or 
a growing plant in the center. For the dinner table use flowers 
or a plant. 

The appearance of the food itself is another decorative 
feature. The dish selected for food must be so large that the 
edges will remain clean. Do not fill any dish too full. Meat, 
especially if it is to be carved, must be put on a comparatively 
large platter. If food is served in the dish in which it is cooked 
a napkin arranged in several diagonal folds may be neatly 
pinned around it. A pudding dish or a casserole with an outer 
dish of silver or china may be used. Bowls or small dishes for 
sauces or other foods that are apt to soil the tablecloth should 
have a small plate or tray underneath. 

Desserts with very tliin sauces are more attractive if served 
in deep rather than shallow plates. Biscuit or rolls of sym- 
metrical and even size, bread cut in neat squares or oblongs, 
cake or pie neatly cut, and all browned to an even golden hue 
are decorative, as are rich, brown, juicy meats and golden brown 



RULES OF ETIQUETTE AND SERVING -269 

potatoes. A stew served in a border of well-browned potatoes 
furnishes a pleasing contrast for the eye as well as for the palate. 
A brown stew with a border of white potatoes or rice is very 
attractive. Vegetables must be well drained, never watery. For 
example, spinach surrounded by water is unappetizing, but put 
in a neat mound garnished with egg is pleasing to the eye. Al- 
ways keep the appearance of the various dishes in mind when 
planning your menus. 

Anything used for a garnish must be very dainty and attract- 
ive, and should be edible. Parsley is one of the most popular 
articles used in this way; it is also a condiment and is believed 
to be an aid to digestion. It should be very clean and crisp and 
the curled variety is to be preferred. If grown in a window 
box or a flower bed it is always to be had when needed. 
A single garnish used repeatedly, however, is as monotonous 
as a single method of preparing a certain food. Lemon in slices 
or eighths is used with fish and some meats. Curled celery is 
another appetizing garnish. Tiny red radishes with the skin 
curled back are attractive for ham or beef, and eggs in various 
forms may be used for many vegetables. Salads may be served 
on beds of crisp, dry lettuce or cress, in apple cups, or in toma- 
toes, or green peppers. Avoid an excess of carelessly prepared 
greens. A sprig or two of parsley at the ends of a platter of 
steak is appetizing, but a whole bunch detracts from the food. 

PVuit may be served in low bowls, platters, or baskets with 
a few perfect leaves. Grape and peach leaves are very effect- 
ive. Desserts may be surrounded by whipped cream or deco- 
rated with a meringue. Gelatin and cornstarch desserts may be 
turned from the mold on platters or shallow bowls. Ice cream 
may be molded and garnished with fresh or candied fruit. 

The Cover. The space occupied by the plate and silver 
for each person is known as the cover. Allow as much space 
as possible for this (at least twenty inches is needed for comfort, 
and twenty-five to thirty is better). A cover should occupy a 
space fifteen inches in depth from the edge of the table. 

The place of the hostess is at the end of the table nearest 



270 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



the door of the drawing or living room, as she enters the room 
last. Where the hostess is both cook and waitress and must rise 
from the table during the meal, it is more convenient for her to 
sit near the kitchen door. The host sits opposite the hostess. 
The place of honor for gentlemen is at the riglit of the hostess ; 
for ladies, at the right of host. 




DINNER TABLE SET FOR SOUP COURSE 



Arrange all dishes so as to give the table a symmetrical 
appearance ; this does not necessarily mean in straight rows. 
All dishes and pieces of silver should be placed at least one inch 
from the edge of the table. 

If there are no warm dishes to be served, put a plate right 
side up in the center of each cover. The decorations on the plate 
should face the guest. (At formal dinners a handsome plate 
known as the service plate is placed at each cover and is not 
removed until the main hot meat course appears. In this style 
of service the place before the guest is always occupied by a 



EULES OF ETIQUETTE AND SERVING 271 

plate until the talile is cleared for the dessert. As the waitress 
removes one plate she places another that has been served.) 

Knives are placed at the right, sharp edges turned to the 
plate ; forks at the left, tines up ; teaspoons at the left of the 
plate, bowl up ; soup and cereal spoons are placed at the right. 
Tlie silver is placed in the order in which it is to be used; that 
used first farthest from the plate. 

If the table is to be cleared before the dessert and coffee 
are served do not put on dessert spoons or forks or coffee spoons 
when setting the table. 

The water glass is placed at the tip of the knife, top up. 
The bread and butter plate is placed at the tip of the fork. Place 
the napkin at the left, neatly folded in a square. Never arrange 
it in the irregular forms seen in some public eating places. 

Place the soup ladle in front of tlie hostess or at the right, 
handle to the right and bowl up. 

Place carving set in front of the host, or put carving knife 
and gravy ladle at his right, and fork at his left. 

Place several tablespoons and forks, if needed, at each end 
of the table, or lay one beside each place where the dishes 
to be served will be placed. 

If tea or coffee is to be served before the table is cleared, 
arrange the cups and saucers at the left of the hostess, handles 
turned the same way, and cream pitcher, sugar bowl, and coffee 
pot at the right (either on a tray or separate), the whole form- 
ing a semicircle. 

Put the water pitcher or carafe (a glass water jug) in front 
of the person who is to replenish the glasses. If a waitress is 
at hand the water is put on the sideboard. 

At informal meals the butter dish may be placed at one side 
of the center of the table, with the butter knife at the right. 
If butter is served in balls a small butter fork is used instead 
of the knife. 

Put salt and pepper at each side of the center of the table 
or at each end. If individual salt and peppers are used place 
before each cover. 



272 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Finger bowls are filled one-third full of fresh cold water. 
In them there may be a geranium leaf or a rose petal. 
They are placed on the sideboard before the meal is announced. 
Where fruit is served first at an informal meal the finger bowls 
may be placed on the table at the beginning of the meal, on a 
doily or on the fruit plate ; (the bowl is lifted from the plate as 
the fruit is passed), or in front of the plate. If the fruit is 
on the plate when the meal is announced, put the bowl on a 
doily in front of the plate. A fruit course of sliced peaches or 
berries that have been hulled or any fruit that does not soil the 
fingers does not require finger bowls. 

At the end of a formal meal place each finger bowl on a 
dainty doily on a small plate. When the coffee is served place 
finger bowl in front and a little to the left of guest. 

The Breakfast Table. (Keview general directions.) Arrange 
the table for breakfast as directed, selecting the dishes accord- 
ing to the menu. Put butter and jam or other sweet on the table. 

Serving the Fruit Course. If fruit is served first put the 
fruit plates with the finger bowls in the center of the space 
allowed for each person. Place a silver fruit knife at the right 
on the fruit plate if it will be needed. Put a fruit spoon if re- 
quired at the right, outside the breakfast knife. 

At a very simple meal butter may be placed on the breakfast 
plate or on a small butter plate instead of using the bread and 
butter plate. 

Put the cereal in a covered dish before the person who is to 
serve it, with the cereal bowls or saucers at the left. 

Unless they are being warmed, place the breakfast plates at 
the left of the space intended for the hot dish that is to be served 
by the host. After the fruit course and the finger bowls are 
removed serve the cereal. When the cereal dishes are removed 
place the hot dish before the host, or if eggs in cups are served 
place them when the cereal bowls are taken away. 

Hot bread and potatoes are placed on the table at the sides. 
If a Avaitress is in attendance she may first pass them. 



RULKS OP ETIQUETTE AND SERVING 273 

The Supper or Luncheon. Supper or luncheon may be 
served as directed for breakfast. Fruit may form the first course 
at luncheon and may be served as at breakfast, or it may be used 
for dessert. 

At supper small plates are used if no meat is served. If 
preserves are used place the dish before the person who is to 
serve it with dessert saucers at the left. If the supper plates 
have had nothing in them that will spoil the flavor of the pre- 
serves, it may be served on them at a very informal meal. 

Dinner. Even if one has no waitress dinner should be 
served in as dignified a manner as possible. Set the table care- 
fully, using dinner plates. 

At the family dinner the carving is done at the table. The 
soup, vegetables, salad, dessert, and tea or coffee, also, are 
served at the table. It is permissible for those at the table to 
pass the vegetables, or some one near the carver may put them 
on the plate with the meat. 

If the table is carefully set the person who acts as waitress 
need leave her seat but twice — once after the soup, and once 
before the dessert. The one who cooks should not be expected to 
leave her place to serve. 

Boys should take turns with their sisters in serving at the 
table when there is no waitress. 

"When soup forms the first course, place the tureen before the 
one who is to serve, and the warm soup plates directly in 
front of and almost touching it. (If many plates are needed do 
not put them in one pile.) Remove the lid, turning it upside 
down. After the first course remove the tureen, then the plates, 
taking them one at a time instead of piling them together. Then 
luring on the hot dishes, including the warm dinner plates. Re- 
fill the water glasses. 

Before the dessert is served remove everything except water 
glasses and carafe ; then place the dessert before the one who 
is to serve. 



274 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

A FEW GENERAL RULES 

Fill water glasses to within an inch of the top just before 
the meal is announced. When the glasses are to be refilled draw 
them to the edge of the table at the right of the guest, putting 
your hand near the bottom. 

Dishes intended to be cold should be cold ; dishes intended to 
be hot should be hot. Plates must be warmed if the course re- 
quires it. Bread, cakes, and some pastry may be served at the 
room temperature. 

Serve from the left everything to which the guest helps him- 
self. Serve from the right everything which is to be set down 
before the guest. Remove everything from the right. A newer 
and more convenient rule is that everything except beverages 
should be served from the left, and everything removed from 
the right. 

Use a tray for removing small dishes and silver. Take large 
dishes on your left hand or on both hands with a folded napkin 
underneath. Be careful not to put the fingers over the edges of 
the dish. Put a spoon or a fork, or both, if needed, in each dish 
to be served. Place them on the side next to the guest. Hold 
the dish low enough for the guest to help himself conveniently. 

In removing a course take the large dishes first, then the 
plates. All that belongs to one course is removed before the next 
is brought in. Never reach across a cover. Never pile dishes 
one upon the other. Small dishes may be placed side by side 
on a tray, but when a number of guests must be quickly 
served by one waitress she may take the dinner plate in one hand, 
placing a small dish (if one has been used for juicy vegetables) 
on the plate at the side of knife and fork and taking the bread 
and butter plate in her other hand. This leaves each cover clear 
as she passes around the table. 

Before the dessert is brought, remove crumbs as quietly as 
possible, using a silver crumb knife or a napkin (a soft napkin is 
preferable on a polished table) and a silver tray or a plate, pass- 
ing to the left of the guests. Crumbs may be removed between 
courses if necessary. 



'RULES OF ETIQUETTE AND SERVING 275 

FORMAL SERVICE 

The table should be supplied with a handsome and spotless 
damask cloth over a heavy silence cloth. The tablecloth should 
extend at least a quarter of a yard over the edge of the table. 
For luncheon the polished table is often used without a cloth, but 
the table must be quite handsome if set without a cloth. A 
number of doilies of lace or embroidery are needed to carry out 
this plan. They should be of linen and not over decorated. A 
round table lends itself more easily to decoration than a square 
one and makes it easier to engage in general conversation. 

In setting the table, apply the rules given. The oyster fork 
is placed at the right of the soup spoon. A fork is used for all 
desserts if possible. Bread and butter plates are not used at 
formal dinners. A dinner roll or a piece of bread two inches long 
and half an inch thick may be laid between the folds of the nap- 
kin. Menu cards are not used at private dinners. Place cards 
may be used for large dinners or luncheons. They should be 
small and dainty and are placed in front of the service plates. 

Decorations should be simple and not high enough to obstruct 
the view across the table. The lights should be shaded and placed 
no higher than the heads of the guests. Candles may stand 
just outside the centerpiece or may be placed near the four cor- 
ners of a square table. One candle to two guests may be used. 
Candle shades and holders should not be too elaborate. Bon 
bons and salted nuts may be put on the table in crystal or silver 
dishes. 

Serving. At formal dinners the main courses, such as 
sOup and meats, are served from the pantry. Portions are put 
on the plates and placed before the guests. Dishes that ac- 
company the course are offered on a tray, which is held low 
enough for the guest to help himself. If the party is large, this 
style of service is possible only with several maids. (For family 
use or for small dinners the method may be modified ; if a fruit 
cocktail or oysters are served first, they may be on the table when 
dinner is announced or may be served from the pantry after the 
guests are seated.) After this course is removed the soup is 



276 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

served. The waitress should pass to the right of the guest at 
the hostess' right, and put the plate before him on the service 
plate. After all are served at the right, she should begin at the 
Jiostess' left. If fish is served, the fish platter should be put 
before the host. The warmed fish plates should be placed in 
piles of three or four at the side or brought from the side- 
board. The waitress should first serve the guest at the right 
of the hostess, removing the service plate Avith her left hand 
and putting the fish plate in its place, then proceeding as for 
the soup until ad are served. Cold relishes, such as cucum- 
bers or tomatoes, should be served on small plates at the left 
of each cover. The fish sauce should then be passed, then 
potatoes or other starchy vegetables. 

If an entree (a dish such as creamed SAveetbreads as a course 
alone) is used, it is served from the serving table. 

The chief meat course is served from the pantry or by the 
host in the manner in which the fish is served. Then the starchy 
vegetable should be passed on a tray ; then the green vegetable 
such as peas, and tomatoes ; then the meat sauce ; then bread or 
rolls if needed. This course should be removed as directed for 
fish, a salad plate being placed before each guest (with the salad 
on it, if served from the pantry) when the meat plates are 
lifted. 

Only vegetable salads are served at dinner. At small dinners 
the French dressing may be made at the table by the hostess, but 
it is usually made in the pantry. The salad bowl should be 
placed on a tray before the hostess, with a salad fork and spoon 
in the bowl, and an extra salad plate before her. The plates 
when served should be placed before the guests in the order 
given, and the empty salad plates removed. Then wafers and 
cheese, if they are to be served, should be passed on a tray. 
When the salad course is removed, the bowl should be taken 
first; then plates; then salt, pepper, and relishes. Only confec- 
tions, water glasses, and decorations should be left. The crumbs 
should be removed very quietly before the dessert is served. 

The dessert plate with the proper spoon or fork, and a finger 



EULES OF ETIQUETTE AND SERVING 217 

bowl on a doily, should be placed before each guest. The dessert 
is put before the liostess ; each guest lifts the finger bowl and 
doily and places them in front and to the left of his dessert plate. 
As soon as the hostess serves a plate, it is put before a guest, 
and replaced with a fresh dessert plate. The dessert may also be 
served from the pantry. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What do you think of the importance of observing correct social usages 
at the family table? Why do good manners help digestion? What subjects 
should be omitted from conversation at the table? Why? How nlay you 
become a better conversationalist? 

Why should dinner invitations be in'omptly accepted or declined? Write 
a formal acceptance of a dinner invitation. 

Read aloud carefully the rules given regarding the manner of eating. Do 
you observe them? If not, try to correct your habits. 

What is the proper temperature for the dining room? What can you 
say regarding light in the room? How should the sideboard be arranged? 
Serving table? What material should be used for a silence cloth? Tell how 
to set the table. What is meant by a cover? Where is the hostess' place? 
Who leads the way into the dining room? Where is the seat of honor? 
How far from the edge of the table are dishes and silver placed? What 
is meant by a service plate? Draw a diagram of a cover as set for a family 
breakfast. For a formal dinner. Set the table, including decorations, and 
go through the form of service for a family breakfast, luncheon, dinner, 
and for a formal dinner. Write your menus first. (See Making Menus.) 

What is the general rule for serving and removing dishes? What decora- 
tions do you consider appropriate for a dinner? 



CHAPTER XXI 

MAKING MENUS 

(Keview Daily Fuel Value Eequirements, Page 43 — Foods and Digestion) 
*One Hundred Calorie Portions of Common Foods Ready to Serve 



Almonds 

Apples 

Apricots (dried) 

Bacon 

Bananas 

Beans (dried) . . 
Beef (round) . . . 
Bread 

Butter 

Buttermilk 

Cabbage 

Celery 

Cheese 

Chocolate 

(unsweetened) 

Cream 

Dates 

Eggs 

Milk 

Oatmeal 



QUANTITY 



12 to 15 
1 to 2 

6 to 7 

1 or 2 small slices 

1 

2 heaping tbsp. 

small serving, 

1 thick slice or 

2 thin slices 

1 square or ball 

1 glass (1/2 pt.) 

14 small head 

2 small stalks 

11/4 in. cube 



WEIGHT 



% square 


.5oz, 


% to 1/4 c. 


1% oz 


3 to 4 


1. oz 


IVi 


4. oz 



% c. 



a large serving 



.5 oz 
7.5 oz. 

1.2 oz. 
.5 oz. 
5.5 oz. 
8. oz. 
2. oz. 

1.4 oz. 
.4 oz. 

8. oz. 
13.3 oz. 
21. oz. 

.80Z. 



6. oz. 



oz. 



PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS 



Fat and protein 
Carbohydrate, mineral 

matter, and bulk 
Carbohydrate 
Fat 

Carbohydrate 
Protein and carbohydrate 
Protein and fat 

Carbohydrate and protein 

Fat 

Carbohydrate and protein 

Bulk and carbohydrate 

Bulk, carbohydrate, and 

vegetable salts 
Protein and fat 

Fat 

Fat 

Carbohydrate 

Protein, fat and mineral 
matter 

Protein, fat carbohy- 
drate, and mineral mat- 
ter 

Carbohydrate, mineral 
matter, and bulk 



♦From Bulletins 28 and 142, Department of Agriculture. 

278 



MAKING MENUS 



279 



One Hundred Calorie Portions of Common Foods Ready to Serve — Cont. 



Olives 

Oranges 

Pickles 

Pork chops 

Potatoes 

Potatoes (mashed) . . 

Prunes 

P u d d i n g, bread, 
rice, Indian, tapi- 
oca or cornstarch. 

Raisins 

Rice (cooked) 

Shredded Wheat 
Biscuit 

Sugar 

Tomatoes (fresh) . . 

Tomatoes (canned) . 



QUANTITY 



7 to 8 
1 large 



15 cucumbers 
(average size) 

1 8m all 

2 small ones 

2 heaping tbsp. 

3 to 4 



1 heaping tbsp. 

15 to 20 

2 heaping tbsp. 

1 biscuit 

2 tbsp. 

3 to 4 



1 pt. 



WEIGHT 


IVs 


oz. 


10. 


oz. 


23. 


oz. 


3 


oz. 


4. 


oz. 


4. 


oz. 


1.2 


oz. 


2. 


oz. 


1. 


oz. 


4. 


oz. 


1. 


oz. 


1. 


oz. 


1. 


lb. 


1. 


lb. 



PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS 

Fat 

Mineral matter and car- 
bohydrate 

Condiment 

Fat and protein 

Carbohydrate and bulk 

Carbohydrate and bulk 

Carbohydrate 



Carbohydrate 
C^arbohydrate 
Carbohydrate 

Carbohydrate and protein 

Carbohydrate 

Vegetable salts and acids, 

carbohydrate 
Vegetable salts and acids, 

carbohydrate 



111 planning meals for a day or a week there are several very 
important points to keep in mind, the most important being that 
a balanced ration should be provided, — one in which all classes 
of food are in the right proportion. (What per cent of food 
should be protein?) Unless all food is weighed and the fuel 
value of each of its food elements computed it cannot be exactly 
determined how much of each class should be eaten. As this is 
a long and tiresome process, most housekeepers depend upon their 
general knowledge of the composition of foods, and upon the 
guidance of the appetite. 

A man of average weight for his height and age, whose work 
is light, needs seventeen calories per pound of body weight daily; 



280 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

the average woman needs eight-tenths as many. Persons suffer- 
ing from wasting diseases or convalescing from sickness that has 
left the body emaciated need a much higher caloric value and a 
greater proportion of protein than the robust adult. Children 
need a greater number of calories per pound of body weight — 
varying from forty-five calories for the first six months, to thirty 
at nine years of age, to twenty-seven at fourteen, and to eighteen 
at seventeen years of age. A boy of twelve or a girl of fifteen 
needs as much protein as a woman, and a boy of six needs half 
as much as a man. 

In planning meals for children see that they get enough 
protein and fat, and plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables, and 
be sure that they do not eat too much sugar or sweets. A child 
needs a great deal more food in proportion to his weight than a 
grown person does, because the child is growing. A child of 
five needs almost half as much food as a man, but needs pro- 
portionately more fat and tissue building food than the adult. 
An active boy of fifteen requires as much food as a man. A 
middle aged person needs less protein than a young one. An 
active worker needs more food than one who leads a quiet life. 
When one is out of doors more should be eaten than when one 
stays indoors. If making a menu for persons who work indoors 
do not use foods that are difficult to digest; dried beans, for 
instance, are a good protein food for a man in the field, but 
not for a bookkeeper. Make a list of foods that are difficult 
to digest. 

Some Coarse Foods Are Needed. Every menu should con- 
tain some bulky food rich in cellulose. The green vegetables and 
fruits and the coarse breads — corn, Graham, and whole wheat — 
are such foods. They prevent constipation — a condition that 
causes much ill health. 

Another thing that should be considered in menu planning 
is the season or temperature. In summer, cooling foods are re- 
quired and nature provides .juicy fruits and vegetables, such as 
peaches, watermelons, and tomatoes. The winter vegetables, 
beets, turnips, and carrots, are richer in carbohydrates and conse^ 



MAKING MENUS 281 

quently furnish more heat. For those who keep their houses 
very warm and who wear much heavy clothing, some cooling 
foods are needed even in winter, therefore the canned summer 
fruits and vegetables and fresh ones, shipped from warmer 
climates are desirable. 

Other Points in Menu Making. Plan menus early enough 
to secure the needed supplies without hurrjdng the cook or the 
tradesman. Menus should be made at least a day ahead ; a week 
is better. One can always modify the selection of foods to suit 
the supplies on hand or to provide for unexpected guests. 

Pleasing Combinations. A menu may be well balanced, 
and still be unappetizing. The body does not get the most out of 
food unless it is well digested, and good digestion depends very 
largely on the palatability of the food. Some foods blend 
well together; others do not. Broiled chicken and green peas 
are an appetizing combination but green peas with pork are 
not attractive. With a food so rich in fat as pork, acid such 
as apple sauce, tomatoes, or turnips with vinegar is desired. 
Do not serve more than one starchy vegetable at a meal. Do 
not serve too many green vegetables at one meal — never more 
than two and a salad. Do not have at one meal several foods 
dressed or served in the same way; if one dish has a sauce, 
another should be dry. Do not use the same food twice in a 
menu ; for example, cooked tomatoes and tomato salad ; or 
chicken broth followed by chicken for the meat course. The 
only exceptions to this rule are the use of fish and oysters at 
the same meal, or a soup made from beef stock with beef in 
some other form. In planning the dessert be sure that it does 
not disturb the balance or proportion of the ration. 

Giving Variety to the Menu. By using different methods 
of cooking and seasoning a pleasing variety may be secured. 
Serving even a staple food like potatoes in the same way every 
day causes one to tire of it. Plain mashed potatoes, browned 
mashed potatoes, potatoes with parsley and melted butter, baked 
potatoes, and puffed potatoes, are all easy to prepare. Using a 
number of flavors a::d seasonings is another way of securing 



282 'i'HE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

variety. Some cooks make the mistake of limiting their season- 
ings to pepper and salt, with the occasional use of lemon and 
vanilla for the sweet dishes. Every kitchen should be sup- 
plied with a variety of herbs and spices. Of the aromatic 
condiments, cloves, cinnamon, allspice, nutmeg, mace, vanilla, 
lemon, sage, thyme, parsley, and bay leaf (used in moderation) 
are very useful. The peppers cause congestion in the digestive 
tract and irritate the kidneys and should be used very sparingly. 
The mild red peppers such as paprika are least harmful. Mus- 
tard, horseradish, onion, and garlic are all used as condiments 
but except in very small quantities are irritating. Vinegar and 
lemon juice in small quantities are pleasing stimulants to the 
appetite. Vinegar is often flavored with herbs; tarragon vine- 
gar has a very agreeable flavor. 

Time and Method of Cooking. In planning the menu con- 
sider carefully the time required for preparation and cooking; 
if the housekeeper is very busy she should select foods that will 
not demand too much of her attention. Cook foods requiring long 
continued heat at a time when the wood or coal range is being 
used, or put them in a tireless cooker. If the gas oven is to be 
used select the food which will necessitate the use of as few top 
burners as possible. 

Cost. The money to be expended on food should be def- 
initely decided. If expensive foods are bought for one day, 
something cheaper must be used on some other occasion ; other- 
wise the food allowance of the housekeeper's budget will be ex- 
ceeded. After the menu is made, one may substitute a cheaper 
article of the same class to reduce the cost ; for instance, cole slaw 
or a jellied vegetable relish may be substituted for hothouse 
cucumbers to serve with fish. 

Some Menus for Comparison. Each of the following dinner 
menus was served to four people at a total cost of seventy-five 
cents. Which is the better balanced ? Which is more satisfying ? 
What cheaper vegetable could be substituted for asparagus? 
Wliat starchy vegetable could be substituted for potatoes? How 
would the cost be affected ? 



MAKING MENUS 283 

1. Broiled fish, sealloiiod tomatoes, baked potatoes, Parker House 
rolls, gra])e fruit salad, rounds of plain cake with half a canned peach, 
and coffee. 

2. Broiled meat cakes, asparagus ou toast, hot biscuit^ cake and 
coffee. 

What fault is there in the following menu? Beef soup with crou- 
tons, roast beef, baked potatoes, macaroni with cheese and tomatoes, 
steamed pudding with hard sauce. Suggest some changes that would 
improve it. 

Which of the following menus is the better balanced? Shredded 
wheat biscuit with cream, eggs, toast, butter, dried figs, and coffee, or 
oatmeal with milk, eggs, rolls and butter, sweet oranges, and coffee? (If 
orange or other slightly acid fruit is used, it is more digestible if served 
after a meal.) 

The first of the preceding menus is a little higher in fat, but by using 
milk this could be corrected. Which has the higher food value, oranges 
or dried figs? In using either of these menus for a family of varying 
ages each person might select what suited his needs. A middle aged 
man who wished to restrict his protein might take two helpings of cereal 
and omit the egg; the housekeeper might do the same; or either might 
take cereal one day and egg and toast the next. The growing children 
might eat everything in the menu. Either of these menus with the 
following luncheon and dinner forms a fairly well balanced ration if only 
caloric value is considered; but except for very active people in a cool 
climate they would prove too rich in carbohydrates, and might cause 
digestive troubles: 

Luncheon: Bean soup and croutons, cole slaw, rice pudding. 

Dinner: Clear soup, mutton, rice, carrots, steamed pudding with hard 
sauce. 

Common Mistakes in Menus. Some people, particularly 
women, live largely on starchy foods. They eat white bread and 
sweets, and drink much tea, or they use quantities of rich pastry 
and much highly seasoned food. This is bad for the teeth and 
also disturbs digestion. Some do not eat enough fruit and green 
vegetables. Many men of middle age consume too much meat. 
Avoid these errors in making menus. Be sure to use plenty of 
green vegetables and fruits ; this will prevent the eating of too 
much of the more solid foods. 



284 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



WEITING MENUS 

The following forms for simple menus will serve as convenient 
models: 

Breakfast 

Fruit 
Cereal 



Meat or eggs 



Beverage 



Bread 



Hot dish 



Luncheon 

Salad or Fruit 
Beverage 



Bread 



Dinner 



Soup 
Meat or Meat Substitute 



Starchy vegetables 



Green vegetables 



Bread 

Salad 

Dessert 

Coffee 



QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What are the fuel requirements per pound of body weight of the aver- 
age man? How many calories does he need in twenty-four hours? How 
many does a woman need? How many do you need? What proportion of 
the food should be protein? What factors influence one's food require- 
ments? Why are coarse foods needed? Compare summer and winter 
vegetables, for example, the tomato and the turnip, as to caloric value. 

How long before they are needed should supplies be ordered? How 
may variet;y^ be secured? 



MAKING MENUS 285 

Write a well balanced menu for breakfast, dinner, and luncheon or supj^er 
for your family, considering age, occupation, season, cost, and time for 
preparation. Write a menu for dinner combining the same factors where 
guests are present. Write a hot weather menu; one for cold weather. Plan 
a family breakfast for five cents for each person. For eight cents. Make 
a list of the supplies needed for these meals. Can fruit be provided at these 
prices? Write the order of work for preparing the breakfast. Make careful 
note of the fuel that will be used. Set the table for the breakfast, arranging 
it as far as possible so that no one need leave the table to serve. Write a 
menu suitable for a farmer; for a bookkeeper. Write menus for a day, 
suitable for a family of two adults and three children under twelve years, 
to cost one dollar. Write a menu for a Sunday dinner that could be prepared 
largely beforehand so that the housekeeper could attend church. Write a 
well balanced menu from supplies produced in your locality. Write a menu 
in which most of the food could be prepared in the fireless cooker ; one using 
the steamer. Write a menu for a company luncheon to cost twenty-five 
cents for each person; one to cost fifty cents. Write a detailed plan for 
the first of these menus, including marketing list; schedule for preparing 
meal (referring to recipes needed) ; decorations; linen, china, and silver 
required in serving; and directions for waitress in serving. 



MENUS FOE SI'ECIAL OCCASIONS 

For special occasions one need not be so particular about the 
proper proportion of each food, although it is always well to con- 
sider health. A very rich sweet ice cream with a. rich cake 
should not be used as no hostess wishes her guests to be ill after 
eating the meal she serves. 

A pleasing color scheme is attractive, but should not be se- 
cured by the use of artificial colorings of food. The red of apples, 
peppers, and tomatoes, the golden hue of cake and rolls, the 
brown of chocolate, and the brown and cream of candies all are 
useful. A flower of the desired hue may be placed on each plate. 

The Floral Decorations. Flowers add to the beauty and 
enjoyment of any social occasion; expensive hothouse varieties, 
however, are no more beautiful than many wild or garden flowers 
and fruit blossoms. Such humble flowers as petunias or 
phlox daintily arranged with a bit of fern are very atti'aetive. 
The corn flower is one of the few blue flowers to be had, hence 



i^8Q THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

it is very useful for patriotic occasions. In the spring, fruit 
blossoms and in tlie autumn berries and bright leaves and vines 
are most appropriate. If the housekeeper has even a small yard 
she may always have some floAvers except during the winter. A 
small window garden will afford some blossoms even at Christ- 
mas ; the bulbs are most satisfactory for winter and early spring. 

Flowers are not always needed for decoration. At Thanks- 
giving fruit and autumn leaves seem more appropriate ; for 
Christmas, holly, mistletoe, or any other attractive green shrubs 
are more suitable than cut flowers. A sparkling tree or a Santa 
Claus makes an attractive centerpiece. 

The following special menus will suggest some pleasing com- 
binations and color schemes : 

Washington's Birthday. Colors, red, white, and blue. Use old blue 
china, bread and butter rolls tied with red (or red, white and blue ribbon) ; 
chicken salad, molded in tomato aspic; small frosted cahes with a cherry 
on top; lemonade, punch, or coffee. 

Valentine Party. I. Frosted heart shaped cakes; fruit punch. 

II. Heart shaped chicken sandwiches garnished with olives; sherbet 
and heart shaped frosted cakes. 

Fourth of July. Chicken sandwiches, made of white bread cut in 
rounds; salad of stuffed tomatoes, served on blue plates; brick ice cream 
in white plates with tiny flags on each j^late. 

Hallowe'en Party for Children. Minced chicken sandwiches; ginger- 
bread; lemonade; peanut brittle. 

Gold and White Ice Course. (Gold rimmed china.) 

I. Caramel ice cream; frosted angel cake; a yellow rose or daisy on 
each plate. 

II. Vanilla cream; unf rested sponge cake. 

III. Sherbet in orange baskets and white cake. 

Red, White, and Green Color Scheme for Afternoon Party. Use a salad 
of green peas with Mayonnaise on lettuce leaf ; round sandwich of white 
bread with filling of cheese and nuts, A bit of bread is removed from 
one side of the sandwich and a thin crosswise slice of olive stuffed with 
pimento is laid in so that its surface is just even with the surface of 
the bread, thus giving the red, white, and green. Following this a white 
ice, lemon sherbet, or ice cream may be served in a paper case with an 
outside covering of green crepe paper; a narrow red satin ribbon is tied 
around the case near the top; accompanying this is a small white frosted 
cake. 



MAKING MENUS 287 



For Afternoon Tea: 



I. Nut sandwiches; small cakes; coffee or tea. 
IT. Sweet sandwiches; liot chocolate witli wliipped cream. 

Chafing Dish Supper: 

I. Hot scrambled eggs with grated cheese, or a welsh rarebit; lettuce 
or tomato sandwiches; bread and butter sandwiches; olives; small cakes; 
tea or coffee. 

II. Creamed oysters or chicken (from cold roast chicken) on toast; 
celery salad with French dressing; bread and butter sandwiches; small 
cakes; coffee or tea. 

Picnic Luncheons: 

I. Cold chicken (roasted, fried, or in chicken pie) ; bread and butter 
sandwiches; olives; celery salad; small cakes; fresh fruit; pecan candy; 
coffee. 

II. Eoast beef or ham sandwiches; bread and butter; stuffed eggs; 
whole tomatoes served with salt; fresh pineapple or peaches; cookies; 
lemonade. 

III. Lettuce and nut sandwiclics; stuft'ed eggs; Graham biscuits with 
filling of cottage cheese; fresh fruit; cookies; hot or iced tea. 

IV. A menu that may be prepared in the woods — Sandwiches or 
bread and butter; fruit and small cakes may be brought from home; 
bacon or meat may be broiled over the coals on a stiff green twig; potatoes, 
corn, and eggs may be roasted in ashes, and coffee may be made. 

SERVING FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 

An Afternoon Reception or Tea. Unless one is able to em- 
ploy a caterer it is best to choose simple dishes, simply pre- 
pared. 

A tea table should be large ; a round one is to be preferred. 
Its polished surface should be protected by handsome doilies; 
a low bowl of flowers should be placed in the center, although in 
autumn fruit and bright leaves would be appropriate. About 
the centerpiece arrange several shaded candles in silver or crystal 
liolders; if the room is not darkened these will not be needed. 
Put on the table plates of daiuty sandwiches and small cakes, and 
glass or silver dishes of salted nuts, mints, or other confections 
(if the}^ are to be used). 



288 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



If coffee and tea are both served place one service at each 
end of the table. Pnt a dish of sliced lemon and one of cnt sugar 
on the tea tray or on the table near the teapot. Place with the 
coffee a pitcher of hot cream, and sugar and tongs for serving 
(a spoon or the tips of the fingers may be used). Small flaring 
cups of the standard tea pattern are used for tea ; after dinner 
coffee cups are used for coffee. Use small spoons. If a large 
number are to be served have the tea made in the kitchen and 
strained into a hot pot so that it will not grow strong with 
standing; even with this precaution fresh tea should be made 




A CONVENIENT CHAFING DISH OUTFIT 



several times during a large reception, as it loses its fragrance 
by standing. Coffee may be made in quantity and the pot re- 
filled, if one has no coffee urn ; an electric plate may be used 
under the pot if the table is protected. 

Chocolate, beaten and flavored, is served in the same manner 
as tea and coffee. Put a spoonful of whipped cream on each cup. 
Use a glass, silver, or china bowl and a small ladle for the cream. 
A chocolate service may be used, but a tall china or silver pitcher 
and coffee or teacups may take its place. Small cakes or sweet 
sandwiches may be served with chocolate ; never meat or cheese 
or rich salad dressings, as chocolate contains much fat. 

Punch alone or punch with small cakes may be served. A 
small table will usually suffice for punch. Arrange the glasses 
and the bowl and place a silver ladle in the bowl. Provide enough 



MAKING MENUS 289 

glasses to give each guest a clean one. A part of the glasses may 
be washed while the others are in use. 

A Chafing Dish Supper. The chafing dish is a most useful 
article, not only for the college girl but for the housekeeper. A 
hot dish prepared on it and served with some cold foods 
will make a most attractive Sunday night or other supper. 




CHAFING DISH TABLE SET WITH DOILIES 

Arrange the table as for afternoon tea, putting on plates of 
sandwiches, cold meat, and cakes. Put the chafing dish on the 
tray with the needed spoons or ladles in the place of the tea 
service. Put the plates in which the dish is to be served in front 
of and to the right of the tray ; lay the forks or spoons beside it 
(knives are not usually needed). Oyster stew or hot soup may 
be served from the chafing dish. If coffee or tea is served, put 
the service before the person w^ho is to pour it. A creamed dish 
on toast or crackers accompanied by a salad, sandwiches, small 
cakes, and a hot beverage makes a pleasing supper. 

The Picnic Luncheon. (See Sandwiches, page 220, and The 
School Luncheon, page 316.) In planning a picnic menu, remem- 
ber that if full benefit of the outing is to be enjoyed, the food 
must be wisely selected and prepared in simple ways. Fried 



290 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

foods, such as potato chips and doughnuts, and rich pastries, 
canned meats, and highly seasoned foods are no more digestible 
on a picnic than at home. For meats use veal, mutton, beef, 
or plain boiled ham, roast chicken or turkey. Chicken pie, thin 
slices of boiled ham with stuffed eggs lightly seasoned, baked 
beans, and meat sandwiches are all popular. Wrap meats and 
sandwiches in oiled paper. 

Salads must be fresh and crisp ; wrap salad plants in a damp 
cloth until ready to serve ; it is best to carry the salad dressing 
in a jar having a screw top and put it on the salad when ready 
to serve. Carry salmon or potato salad in deep bowls covered 
with oiled paper. 

Fresh fruit is always good on a picnic ; fresh pineapple pared, 
pulled apart, and sprinkled lightly with sugar, then chilled 
before packing, will be crisp at serving time. 

Cookies or small cakes, and loaf or layer cakes that can 
be carried without being mashed, are all good picnic foods. Some 
simple home-made candy may be used — peanut brittle, fudge, or 
divinity. 

For beverages lemonade and iced or hot tea, or coffee are suit- 
able. Tea and coffee should not be habitually used by young 
people, but when one is in the woods a hot beverage seems most 
appetizing. Carry lemon juice mixed with sugar or a syrup in 
jars or bottles and add the required quantity to a glass of cold 
water when needed. Carry strong tea in the same manner. 
Coffee for a small party may be carried in a thermos bottle, but 
the odor of coffee being made seems to give a real picnic atmos- 
phere. Carry the coff'ee in a can or jar to keep the odor from 
other foods, and provide a cheesecloth bag for making it. (See 
Coffee in Quantity, page 359.) Tea should be made fresh. Take 
a small teakettle or saucepan for boiling water ; the kettle is best. 
Do not forget tea and coff'ee pots if needed. One is usually 
thirsty when outdoors, hence an abundance of the selected 
beverage should be provided. 

Butter should be carried in a can or screw-top jar. A small 
quantity may be put in a jelly glass wrapped in a wet cloth. 



MAKING MENUS 291 

Carry sugar and salt in tightly covered jars or cans. Cheese, 
olives, and pickles also should be put in jars. 

The Dishes. Use sterilized pasteboard or wooden plates. 
Provide plates, cups or glasses, spoons, knives and forks (if 
needed) for each person. Take a paper tablecloth or an old linen 
one, and paper napkins. 

Dishes Prepared Out of Doors. In camp cookery, a good 
bed of coals, not so large that the heat is too great, is essential 
to success. Meat may be broiled on a strong green twig over 
the coals. Eggs, potatoes, and unhusked corn may be roasted 
in the hot ashes with a few coals on top. Remember that the time 
and temperature for cooking these foods are the same whether 
out or indoors. Bread may be baked in a Dutch oven or on a hot 
stone, although the last is a tiresome process. Some most appe- 
tizing stews of meat or vegetables may be made. 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

Plan the refreshments for a Valentine party. Estimate the cost. Plan 
an ice course, using a seasonable color scheme. Prepare and serve afternoon 
tea for the faculty, limiting the cost to ten cents per guest. What simple 
and inexpensive floral decorations are available in your town at the different 
seasons? What wild flowers are suitable"? How much will the decorations 
cost for any of the entertainments you have planned? Plan a chafing dish 
Sunday supper for your family. What is the cost of a chafing dish? What 
fuel do you use for it? How much does it cost to prepare supper with it? 
Write a menu that could be prepared and served in the woods. 



CHAPTER XXII 

HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

THE PART OF THE HOUSEKEEPER 

The woman who is a capable household manager is a great 
factor in the economics of the nation, because the prosperity and 
liappiness of our country depend on each home. Women have 
charge of the spending of most of the money gained by the 
wage earners. The word "economy" means the careful use 
of materials. Do not be extravagant with time or strength 
any more than with money. Make a schedule dividing your 
labor and time so as to give you the most leisure. Does the 
housekeeper do any woi-k that is of financial value, in managing 
the home? Whicli Avould be the greater benefit to your family, 
to get an increase of one hundred dollars a year in income or to 
save the same amount by wise management ? 

In the chapters on cooking, instruction has been given in 

judging supplies and materials; in the study of the home the 

social and hygienic aspects of shelter have been discussed; with 

these standards established, the housekeeper has to decide how 

she will apportion her money so as to satisfy best the needs of 

her family. 

THE BUDGET 

The first question to settle in spending a sum of money 
is to determine into how many portions it shall be divided. The 
second point is to decide what proportion shall be spent for each 
division of the budget. There are certain expenses that are com- 
mon in all families as food, shelter, and operating expenses 
(that is, service, laundry, fuel, lights, etc.), clothing, and higher 
life (church, charity, education, travel, amusements, investment 
such as life insurance, and the buying of property). Medical 

292 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 293 

attendance, drugs, car fare, and other sundries may also be put 
under the head of operating expenses. 

Food. The amount of money spent under each head will 
depend on the amount of the income, the number in the family, 
and the style or standard of living. If the income is small a very 
large percentage of it must be spent for food ; a laborer working 
for one dollar and fifty cents per day would spend fifty per cent 
or more for food, while a famil}^ whose income was about three 
thousand dollars per year would not spend more than thirty per 
cent for food. What part of the income is spent for food in your 
family? Put the sum under the head of "food" in the budget. 
(See page 295.) 

Shelter. Shelter, like food, varies ; but with a small income, 
food and shelter take almost the entire income, leaving but little 
for clothing. What does the day laborer in your town pay for 
shelter ? What comforts does he receive for this sum ? What is 
required for healthful housing? If you live in your own home, 
estimate the interest on the sum of money invested in your home. 
Add to it insurance, taxes, and water rates, and whatever ex- 
penses are made in keeping the property in good condition. 
Consider this amount your cost of shelter and enter it under the 
head of "shelter" in the budget. If you own your home, the 
interest on the investment in it should be added to your income 
before you find the percentage of the total income which goes 
for the various items of the budget. 

Operating Expenses. For the small income this item will be 
very little. What do you spend for this? Put the amount in 
the budget. How does keeping a helper increase the expenses, in 
addition to the wages ? Could you live in a smaller house if you 
did all your own work ? How much house rent could you save ? 
On the other hand, is it economy for a woman who is not strong 
to do heavy work and save on service if the effort causes her to 
spend money for medical treatment? What other expenses be- 
sides service come under the head of operating expenses? 
Could they be reduced ? In what way? Could a saving on light 
be made ? How ? 



294 ^I'HE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Clothing. Under this head, list all purchases of dry goods, 
whether they are for personal or household use ; the amount spent 
will depend on income, climate, social requirements, good sense, 
and good taste, and on the care with which we use our clothing. 
Every person should be dressed comfortably. In a warm climate 
this is not expensive ; where there is much cold the cost is heavy. 
One 's business or profession calls for the proper dress. A doctor 
must spend more than a carpenter for his clothes; the 
housekeeper will not need to spend as much for clothes as the 
teacher, who must dress well every day. Good taste in 
dress is a real economy ; much of the money wasted on clothes is 
spent by those w^ho do not stoj^ to think whether the garment 
selected is what is needed. Do you take good care of your 
clothes? How much do you spend for clothing? How much 
does your family spend? Enter the amount in your budget. 

The Higher Life. The next item in the budget is the ' ' higher 
life." Everyone must have food, clothing, and shelter in some 
form, and in a measure those things which satisfy the desire for 
something more than the merely animal comforts. The very 
poor must depend oil the free entertainments and concerts, with 
an occasional visit to the moving picture theater; the wealthy 
have many items to enter under this head. For the average 
income the amount spent in this way depends very largely on the 
self-control and good management shown in the expenditures for 
food, clothing, and shelter. If one who is not wealthy prefers 
luxurious eating, elaborate clothing, or an expensive house, to 
books, pictures, travel, education, or charity, he must sacrifice 
on these things. 

Saving or investment is an item that should appear in every 
budget, no matter how small the income, except when illness or 
other temporary stress makes saving impossible. Thrift has been 
well defined as, ' ' The managing of one 's affairs in such a manner 
as to increase his possessions. ' ' Money and land, however, are not 
the only forms of investment. A good education is a permanent 
investment. Be thrifty, but not miserly. What does your fam- 
ily spend on higher life ? Enter this in your budget. 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 295 

FORM FOR FAMILY BUDGET 

Fill out this form with your budget figures. 

Number in Family. ... (Children. .. .Adults). Income 

Food 

Shelter 

Operating Expenses 

Clothing 

Higher Life 

HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 

Rule two sheets of tablet paper as indicated on pages 388, 
389, and keep one month's accounts on them. Then copy neatly 
into blanks of the pages indicated. 

The portion of an annual budget that will be spent in any one 
month will depend on the season. If coal is purchased in quan- 
tity the whole year's fuel allowance may be spent in one month. 
Winter clothing, too, may be bought all at once. 

Put the source of the money received in the article column, 
entering it as allowance, salary, wages, rent, or income on other 
investments. Put the name of each article purchased in this col- 
umn. Then put its cost down in "charged," or "cash expend- 
ed," according to the method of purchase. Enter its cost 
under "total expended," and finally put the cost under its 
proper head, "food" or "shelter," etc. When the page is full 
add each column and put the totals at the bottom. If it is not 
the end of the month carry these totals forward to the top line 
across the next page. At the end of the month the totals are 
put in their proper line at the bottom. 

Charge Accounts, i. separate column is used for charged 
accounts because this is the danger point in many families. If 
these are kept low, money may be saved. When a charged 
account is paid, enter it on the right in its proper column. 

To Find the Financial Condition. To find one's financial 
condition at any time get the difference between the total ex- 
penses and the money received. For example, if there is forty 
dollars under "charged" and sixty dollars under "cash ex- 
pended," the total expenditure equals one hundred dollars. If 



296 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

only ninety dollars has been received there is a debt of ten dol- 
lars. If one hundred and fifty has been received there is a 
cash balance of fifty dollars. 

MARKETING 

The term marketing includes not only the purchase of such 
supplies as meat and vegetables, but also the staple articles used 
in every kitchen. In order to judge them the housekeeper must 
know the qualities of good articles of the same class. (Review 
standards of food selection given in chapters on food.) 

Do not depend on the telephone for marketing, as many stores 
sell inferior goods to those who buy in this way. Select food just 
as carefully as you do hats. Visit the grocer's often, and go^ 
to the market for meat and vegetables. 

PURE FOODS 
(See State Pure Food Laws) 

Foods are said to be adulterated if they contain any substi- 
tute for the substance of which they are supposed to be com- 
posed ; or if any part of the food has been removed ; or if it is 
colored or coated ; or if any poisonous or harmful ingredient has 
been added. Food is adulterated, usuall.v, to make it cheaper for 
the manufacturer and to give him a greater profit than he could 
make on pure food. Adulterants may or may not be harmful. 
A quantity of starch and water in sausage may not cause acute 
illness, but if such sausage is depended upon for the proper 
allowance of tissue building food the consumer will be underfed. 

Compounds or mixtures are lawful, but the label must state 
the fact that they are compounds or mixtures ; for example, 
maple syrup made of cane and maple syrup is not harmful, but 
it is cheaper to make than pure maple syrup, and if the label 
does not state that it is a compound the purchaser may pay a 
maple syrup price for it. 

In order to secure pure food one must be very careful to study 
the labels on all package foods; if they are bleached or colored 
with any harmful substances do not buy them. Our laws allow 
certain mineral colors and preservatives, but if foods can be 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 297 

secured without these articles it will be safer to use them. Do not 
use foods which contain salicylic, boric, or benzoic acids, or 
benzoate of soda. Clean food, carefully put up, does not require 
these preservatives. In some states any suspicious articles of 
food may be sent to the public health officers for investigation. 

Secure samples of as many kinds of commercial jellies, jams, 
pickles, baking powders, and other package foods as possible. 
Study the labels. Read that part of the pure food law that deals 
with this subject. Are they correctly labeled ? Make a list of 
them. State whether pure or compound. Compare the prices. 
How many are bleached? Hoav many contain mineral preserva- 
tives? How many are colored? What is a jam, according to 
the pure food law? A jelly? A syrup? Extract of vanilla? 
Of lemon ? When is candy said to be adulterated ? Is it legal 
to sell tomato catsup containing mold spores? What chemical 
colors and preservatives does your law allow? 

Food in Packages. In cold weather one may be able to 
purchase cereals, rice, macaroni, and dried fruits in bulk in 
good condition, although they often contain much dirt unless 
they have been carefully stored. In warm weather or in warm 
climates package goods are usually more satisfactory than bulk 
goods. In any purchase the condition of the article must be 
considered as well as the price. Note directions for care of food 
products, given on packages. Review care of supplies in food 
chapters. 

Buying in Quantity. For a large family with room for 
storage it is cheapest to buy supplies in quantity, but for the 
small family only certain articles can be bought to advan- 
tage in this way. For example : laundry soap, starch, 
canned fruits, and vegetables can be purchased in the autumn 
when the supply is fresh ; sugar, green coffee, and ice-cream 
salt are articles that may be kept without loss; but tea, baking 
powder, roasted coffee, potatoes, flavoring extract in large bot- 
tles, dried fruit, desiccated cocoanut, cereals, and flour all deteri- 
orate if kept long. 

Staple supplies should be purchased for a nionth ; others that 



298 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

are not very perishable for a week. Keep the pantry well 
stocked with flavorings, seasonings, and such canned goods as are 
needed for regular use or for unexpected guests, or other 
emergencies. 

Real Saving. There is, however, even for the small family 
a real saving in careful buying. For example, if certain package 
or other goods are offered for fifteen cents per package or two 
for twenty-five cents, buy tAvo if they can be used. The two and 
one-half cents saved on each package may seem a small saving, 
but in terms of per cent it amounts to sixteen and two-thirds 
per cent, or one-sixth of the whole. A penny saved is a penny 
earned, and when it is done by careful buying it is far more 
easily earned than if some sacrifice is made to save it. In buying 
canned goods a reduction is often secured by taking a dozen 
cans or a case at a time. Frequently a whole basket of fresh 
fruits and vegetables such as peaches and tomatoes can be pur- 
chased for little more than the price of a small quantity. If a 
whole basket is more than is needed for immediate use, one can 
preserve the surplus by cooking or canning it. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Tell how to judge beef; veal; mutton; pork; chicken; and fish. What 
proportion of a good soup bone should be flesh? Bone? Which should be 
chosen for a small family — loin or porterhouse steak? How could the 
tough ends be utilized? Tell how to select cereals. Why not buy cornmeal 
in quantity? Tell how to judge potatoes, beets, turnips, squash, egg plant, 
cabbage, cauliflower. Inspect your supplies and make a list of the staple 
articles needed for a month. See what perishable foods would be needed 
for a week. Make a list of the supplies that you will purchase at the 
grocery; one for the market. If your mother is willing, order the supplies 
for your family, first inspecting everything carefully. Visit a first class 
grocery store; take a book and note prices. Visit another grocery and note 
how the prices compare. Make a list of goods offered that you could use at 
home. Did you get any suggestions for varying your menus? Visit the 
meat and vegetable markets in the same way. Make a menu of a definite 
cost to be prepared at school. See what supplies are in the pantry. Make 
a list of what you must purchase. Review standards for judging articles 
that you need. Buy them in good time for the lesson. 

Inspect your grocery. Note cleanliness, ventilation, food containers; 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



299 



whether mouse, insect, and dust proof; refrigerator; care of perishable 
foods; method of handling foods eaten raw; health of employees; method of 
delivery. After a careful inspection fill out the following card: 

SCORE CARD FOR THE GROCERY STORE 



I. General sanitation 

1 Location in the city 5 

2 Environment 

(a) Proximity to stables, undesirable dwell- 
ings, etc. 

(b) Back yard, manure, litter, empty cans and 
boxes, decaying fruits, vegetables 10 

(c) Dusty streets — open fruit 

(d) Condition of side walks 

3 Basement or back room 5 

4 Lighting 5 

5 Ventilation 5 

II. Equipment and Management 



Per 
Cent 



To be fil!<-<] 
by pupil 



y 30 



y 50 



7 

8 

9 

10 



IIL 



Kefrigerators 8 

Covered counters 3 

Proper shelving 3 

Floors 3 

Weights and measures 3 

Screens — broken ^ ?) 3 

Places for molasses, oils, etc 3 

Personal cleanliness of employees 8 

Exclusion of flies, rats, and mice 8 

Handling goods with the hands 8 

Delivery 

Promptness 5l 

Properly wrapped and covered 10 [- 20 

Wagons — condition 5 J 

Total ICO 




A BABY WHO SCORED 09.82% IN A "BETTER BABIES CONTEST' 



.300 



PART THREE 

CARE AND FEEDING OF CHILDREN 
AND INVALIDS 



CHAPTER I 

TAKING CARE OP THE BABY 

Many girls who read this book help their mothers in the care 
of baby brothers and sisters and will be interested in studying 
the needs of babies. 

The baby's body, like his mind, needs training and protec- 
tion, if it is to be perfect. The head is soft and the brain may 
be injured by hard bumps or by pressure. His skin is very ten- 
der ; it has not the resistance of that of an older child or a grown 
person. The baby must be protected from the bites of insects, 
as they carry disease and their stings are very irritating to the 
skin ; some slight irritation of this sort may cause fever in a 
delicate child, interrupt his growth, and lessen his strength so 
that he will not be able to withstand even a slight illness. The 
baby's face and hands must not be exposed to flies. 

The baby tries to leai'n to use his muscles by kicking and by 
moving his arms and wiggling his body. After the first six weeks 
he may be played with a little. The mother or nurse may move his 
legs or arms gently ; no baby should lie in his crib all the time ; 
he gets much good exercise in his mother's arms. He should, 
however, be taught to lie in bed quietly a part of the time while 

301 



302 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

awake, as a child that is constantly handled and talked to receives 
too much stimulation and becomes nervous. Each day after the 
first four weeks the baby should be undressed and put on a rug or 
bed in a warm room and allowed to kick and wriggle as he 
pleases. A child should not be propped up straight in a baby 
carriage before he is old enough to sit up, neither should he lie 
in the carriage with his eyes exposed directly to the sun. 

Do not use a baby jumper; nature will teach the child to 
stand in time. The baby should be encouraged to crawl as soon 
as he shows a desire to do it; this develops many muscles and 
is good for the bowels. Provide a pen for crawling and put it 
around a clean canvas or sheet over the rug. A child that crawls 
can soon be taught to go down stairs without danger. Start him 
down backwards and help him until he has learned to get down 
without trouble. This is better than keeping the stairs barred 
and carrying the baby up and down. The stairs may be barred 
when it is not convenient to watch the bab}^ He should not be 
taught to sit or stand until he tries to do it for himself. Before this 
time is reached nature is not ready. After the child begins to 
walk encourage him to do it, but do not let him walk too rapidly ; 
pulling a little child along by one arm faster than he should go 
is very bad. 

Fresh air is absolutely necessary for the child ; after he is a 
month old he should be taken outdoors every day unless the 
weather is very severe. In cold Aveather cover him warmly, as 
extreme cold may be fatal to a young child. Put mittens on 
his hands, and keep him in a spot sheltered from high winds. 
If protected from strong sun a baby may spend most of the 
day outdoors, taking his nap on a screened porch. 

A baby should have cool water, given between meals from a 
nursing bottle, but never within half an hour of feeding time. 
The use of the bottle is valuable even for breast fed babies 
if they should require feeding during the absence or illness 
of the mother. Boil all water for babies under one year 
old. If the urine shows a brick dust sediment it is an indication 
of a lack of water. Water also helps in regulating the bowels. 



TAKING CARE OF THE BABY 303 

Sleep. The baby's bedtime should come early in the even- 
ing. Regular hours are very important both for the sleep at 
night and the daytime nap. The late morning or mid-day is the 
best hour for the nap for the older baby ; he will then be ready 
to go to sleep early at night. Up to six years of age, a child 
should take a nap every day. 

Disturbed sleep is in most cases due to improper feeding, 
although uncomfortable clothing, an irritated skin, stings of 
insects, or a room that is too warm or too cold will cause sleep- 
lessness. Never give a hahy soothing syrups or other sleeping 
medicine. They all contain hahit forming drugs that arc likely 
to injure mind and body. A baby should always have its cloth- 
ing changed for the night, and in warm weather a sponge bath 
just before going to bed will be soothing. 

A child should sleep alone; a crib with one side let down 
may be pushed close to the side of the bed of the mother or 
nurse. In cold weather a flannel covered hot water bag should 
be put in the crib; refill it during the night if the cold is 
extreme. 

During the daytime nap cover the crib or baby carriage with 
a stiff mosquito bar unless the house is well screened. 

Clothing. Clothing should be light and loose so that the 
body can move freely. In a cold climate about three layers of 
clothing, two of wool and one of cotton, are needed ; in a warm 
climate less is required, but all young babies require a garment 
of thin silk and wool next to the skin, except in the hottest weather. 
A long sleeved knitted shirt of silk and wool, pinned to the 
diaper — which should be of fine soft birdseye — forms the first 
layer. A band is used for very young babies, or a single garment 
about a yard long may be put on instead of the shirt. Over this 
may be drawn a soft muslin dress and over it a flannel coat or 
dress. If one prefers the shirt, a flannel skirt with cotton waist 
and muslin dress with a short flannel sack can be used. Knitted 
stockings may be fastened to the diaper. No tight bands should 
be used about the body ; they compress the ribs and may cause a 
rupture or break of the abdominal wall. 



304 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

A child in short clothes should wear full length stockings, 
fthoes must be broad and very soft ; they should fit loosely 
i;bout the ankles and instep, but leave room for the toes 
l)oth in width and length. A baby's foot grows very rapidly and 
when shoes are outgrown they should be discarded. 

If the air becomes cooler put on extra clothing, being sure 
that it is soft and not tighf. If the air grows warmer lighten the 
clothing. 

Giving the Baby a Bath. Perfect cleanliness is the only 
way to prevent chafing. Little soap should be used ; a fine white 
castile soap is best, but it must be washed off very thoroughly. 

For bathing, use water tliat is sliglitly warm, tliat is, about 
99° F. for the first few months, reducing gradually to about 
90° F. at six months and 80° F. at one year. Bathe the baby 
r.bout half way between meals; a morning liour is usually the 
best. Have the room and clothing warm. A. very young baby 
must have oil baths only ; one a little older may be bathed in 
water in a small tub or a basin. A trained nurse can show how 
it is done. A baby's washrags and towels should be kept fresh 
and clean. 

The Eyes, Ears, and Teeth. Wash the baby's eyes gently. 
If they seem irritated bathe with a boric acid solution (it may be 
obtained at a drug store). If the irritation continues consult a 
physician. A twist of soft muslin should be used to clean 
the ears. Never use a hairpin or other metal object. If an 
insect gets into a child's ear lay him on his side and fill the ear 
cavity with olive oil barely lukewarm. Keep the head down for 
several minutes, then put the finger over the ear cavity, turn 
the child over, remove finger quickly, and the insect will be 
brought out with the oil. If a child has earache consult a 
physician promptly; much deafness results from ear neglect 
in childhood. 

Take good care of the first teeth and have a cavity filled 
promptly. If the first teeth are lost too early the shape of the 
mouth is injured, and the child may have indigestion on account 
of not being able to chew his food. 



TAKING CARE OF THE BABY 305 

OUTLINE FOR BATHING AND DRESSING A BABY 

Clothes. Before the bath the clothes are put in a warm place. 

The band comes first for the young baby. 

The diaper must be folded smoothly to fit. A small inside diaper of 
soft cheesecloth may be used and burned when soiled. When putting on 
the diaper see that it is loose about the body, and that it is not too thick. 
A tight thick one draws the hips together, presses the legs out of place, 
and by its heat irritates the skin. Change it as soon as it is damp or 
soiled, sponging the skin with a soft cloth wrung out of cool boracic acid 
solution, and drying well before putting on another. Diapers should be 
washed before being used a second time. In washing the baby's clothes 
rinse well to remove soap. Have the shirt of silk and w^ool. To put 
on sleeves roll in a ring and slip over wrists. 

Put on flannel skirt, then dress and coat. 

Bath. The nurse should put on a rubber apron, over which is pinned a 
large, soft bath towel. Use olive oil only until navel is healed — from 7 to 
10 or 14 days. 

Warm olive oil by placing glass in pan of warm water. The child is 
carefully oiled with the finger, care being taken to get into all skin 
creases and folds. The body is wiped with an old soft bath towel. 

Eyes. Wash with antiseptic absorbent cotton, or a twist of soft muslin, 
dipped in boracic acid solution, and wipe with dry cotton. 

Nostrils. Cleanse with cotton wrapped smoothly on a blunt toothpick 
(applicator) dipped in boracic acid solution, and dry with dry applicator. 

Mouth. Clean thoroughly, not omitting the tongue. Use cotton wrapped 
around little finger and dipped in boracic acid solution. 

Head. Wash with large cotton wad dipped in boracic acid solution, 
and dry with dry cotton. If a tiny yellowish crust appears, rub with 
vaseline, then the following morning wash with warm water and pure 
castile soap; continue this until the head is perfectly clean. Brush the 
hair with a soft baby brush, never using a comb. 

Body. No dusting powder need be used unless chafing or a summer 
rash is apparent; then the formula given below will be useful. 

Baby is then dressed and carefully and loosely wrapped in w^arm 
woolen blanket (in winter) and kept quiet. 

To Bathe in a Tub. Have water a little above lukewarm and use a good 
castile soap. With fingers about the back of the neck and head, and 
right hand clasping the ankles, lower the child slowdy and gently into 
the water, buttocks first, and let rest on the bottom of the tub, thus 
freeing the right hand to wash the body. The left should hold his head 
above the water. The baby is quickly washed, care being exercised in 
getting into the folds. Dry by patting gently with an old soft towel. 



306 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

The head, ears, and neck are washed with a soft cloth squeezed dry of 
water. Powder if necessary, and put on clothes. Then cleanse eyes, 
nostrils, and mouth as directed. 

USEFUL FORMULAS 

Dusting Powder. % cornstarch, i/{> talcum powder or boracic acid i)OW- 
der, % stearate of zinc powder. 

Boric or Boracic Acid Solution. Boric acid dissolves in water only to 
four per cent, and this is the strength usually employed. Use 1 tsp. boric 
acid powder to 1 c. boiling water or % cup to 1 gal. of water. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Why is a child's head soft? (See Physiology.) Why is too much 
handling bad for the baby? Why is crawling good for him? Give direc- 
tions for securing fresh air. Why is water so important? Why give it 
in a nursing bottle? How much sleep should a baby have? What is the 
best time for the older child to have a nap? Why not use sleeping medi- 
cines? 

How is a young baby bathed? When may water be used? Give outline 
for bathing baby. Why is clean soft clothing needed? 



CHAPTER II 

DIET OF THE CHILD 

(Eeview Milk) 

The results of bad feeding in early childhood show them- 
selves in bow legs, bent spines, and teeth slow to appear or 
decaying early. The child whose milk teeth decay is usually 
suffering from malnutrition ; later in life tuberculosis, goiter, 
and other diseases may attack the child who has been ill fed. In 
infancy mother's milk is the proper food for the baby; only a 
few artificially fed children are perfectly strong. 

The Composition of the Food. The child needs each oi the 
food elements. It requires protein in a greater amount, and 
has less power of digesting carbohydrates than the adult has. His 
ability to dispose of an excess of fat is also below that of the 
adult. The composition of human milk must be tlie guide for 
the adaptation of cow's milk to the child's use. Human milk has 
slightly less fat than cow's milk, more sugar, and far less protein. 
By diluting cow's milk with water the quantity of all these in- 
gredients is lessened ; then by adding malt sugar a mixture that 
gives us the best substitute for mother's milk is made. Malt 
sugar is not used before the third week in the formulas quoted 
below. The best authorities conclude that a normal child needs 
in twenty-four hours the protein contained in one and one-half 
ounces of good milk for each pound of body weight. The 
fat in milk, if it is a milk with a four per cent fat content, will 
be sufficient for his needs. He will require slightly more carbo- 
hydrate than the sugar of the milk will furnish, so malt sugar 
should be added, one ounce being sufficient. Water is then added 
to make the required quantity, 

307 



308 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

The Caloric Requirements. (Review Daily Fuel Value Ee- 
quirements, page 43.) A child requires food to furnish forty- 
five calories of energy in twenty-four hours for each pound of 
body weight up to six months, then forty calories from six to 
nine months. 

Amount of Food. The amount of food given depends on 
the age and the weight of the child. A young baby's stomach 
holds one ounce at birth ; two and one-half ounces at one month ; 
three and one-half ounces at two months; four and one-half 
ounces at three months; and six ounces at seven months. Some 
authorities give only as much food as the stomach holds; others 
a little more, believing that a part of the food passes out of the 
stomach as soon as eaten. Those who advocate the latter plan 
give a little more than one ounce at birth, with four-hour inter- 
vals; five ounces at a feeding at three months; seven ounces at 
six months and eight or nine at eight months. 

If a child of six months, weighing fourteen pounds, is to re- 
ceive five seven-ounce feedings in twenty-four hours, about thirty- 
six ounces of food will be required. Twenty-one of this is milk and 
one ounce malt sugar. To this add enough boiled water to make 
the required quantity — fourteen ounces of water will be needed 
— making in all the thirty-six ounces. As the child grows older 
and heavier less water is used; hence he receives a more con- 
centrated food. 

How much milk is needed by a baby weighing twelve pounds? How 
much water should be added to his milk? How much can he take at a 
feeding if he is six months old? 

Intervals Between Feedings. Even a breast-fed baby will 
be cross if he eats too often. Many authorities think that 
four hours should elapse between feedings; other authorities, 
three hours. A child fed every two hours is almost sure to have 
colic or be restless. Milk does not leave the stomach for three 
hours, and putting in more food will cause indigestion. Those 
who advocate the four-hour feeding think that the stomach 
should have a period of rest after it is emptied. If a child seems 



DIET OF THE CHILD 



309 



Iiuiigiy befoii3 the next feeding give him more food at a time, but 
do not shorten the intervals between feeding. . 

Length of Time for Feeding. A child should spend about 
twenty minutes in taking his food ; never less than ten minutes 
or more than twenty, whether he is breast- or bottle-fed. 

The Manner of Feeding, Take the child in the arms, and 
hold the bottle so that no air enters the nipple. Never let a child 
suck from a bottle so nearly empty that the nipple is not cov- 
ered with milk. Never lay the bottle on the pillow and leave 
the child to eat alone. 






I n 

FEEDING BOTTLES. I AND II GOOD TYrES. 
DANGEROUS BOTTLE 



III A 



The Time of Feeding. Babies should be fed at regular 
times. Where four-hour feedings are used the best hours seem 
to be 6 and 10 A. M., and 2 and 6 P. M., and 12 midnight. After 
eight or nine months change the midnight feeding to 10 P. M. so 
that the child may have eight hours of unbroken sleep. 



PREPAEATION OF FOOD 

Utensils Needed. Proper utensils will lessen the labor in 
preparing modified milk. Uncracked granite or aluminum sauce- 
pans, double boilers, and other utensils should be used. Provide 
an eight-ounce glass graduated cup for measuring ; a dairy ther- 
mometer ; a dozen feeding bottles, with shoulder beginning at the 
neck (See figure) ; half a dozen black rubber nipples that may 
be turned inside out for cleaning (never use a feeding bottle with 
a rubber tube ) ; non-absorbent cotton for stoppers ; a pitcher for 



310 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

mixing food; a tall cup for warming bottles; glass tubing for 
syphon, if needed ; a bottle brush ; bicarbonate of soda, and 
boric acid for cleansing the utensils. 

Mixing the Food. If in any doubt about the quality of the 
milk. Pasteurize it. (See page 138.) Measure enough cold 
milk for the day ; add the proper amount of malt sugar solution 
(See page 314) and cold boiled water; stir well and fill as many 
feeding bottles as are needed; cork with non-absorbent cotton, 
and put them in a very cold ice-box. 

Warming the Food. "When a bottle is needed remove the 
cotton, being sure that the hands are clean. Adjust a nipple 
from the boric acid solution and set the bottle in a deep cup of 
hot water until lukewarm. Test hy pouring a few drops on the 
hack of the hand; never put the bottle to the mouth. All milk 
that is left in the bottle must be thrown away. Never attempt 
to keep milk warm for several hours in a thermos hottle or other- 
wise. Bacteria increase rapidly when warm. 

Washing Utensils. Rinse all utensils in cold water, then in 
hot. Wash in hot soapsuds, cleaning bottles with a brush. Re- 
verse nipples to wash. Lay bottles, nipples, and glass tubing 
(if used) on a cloth in a kettle; cover with water and boil for 
five minutes; wipe the outside of the l)ottles and cork with ster- 
ilized cotton. Drop the nipples in a saturated solution of boric 
acid until ready to use. Discard nipples as soon as they show 
any cracks, as bacteria may get into the cracks. Scald the other 
utensils. 

The following schedules* of feeding will be helpful in plan- 
ning a child's diet. Remember, hoivever, that each child presents 
a separate feeding problem, and if possible secure the advice of 
a feeding specialist. 

EXAMPLES OF CHILD'S DIET 

Baby at Birth. First 24 hours, 1 to 2 ounces of boiled water every 
four hours. 

Remainder of first week. One and one-half to 3 oz. of food at a feed- 
ing; equal parts of milk and water. 
*By courtesy of Dr. Clifford Grulee. 



DIET OF THE CHILD 3II 

Baby Seven Days Old. Weight Eight Pounds. Milk, 9 oz.; water, 9 
oz.; six 3-oz. feedings. 

Baby Two Weeks Old. Same mixture and quantity, but add one-fourth 
ounce malt sugar to whole day's supply. 

Baby Two Months Old. Weight Ten Pounds. Milk, 12 oz.; water, 
lOYo oz.; malt sugar, % to 1 oz.j five feedings of 4^4 oz. each. 

Baby Three Months Old. Milk, 16i/^ oz.; water, 8i^ oz.; malt sugar, 
1 oz. ; five feedings of 5 oz. each. 

After the Child Is Weaned. When a child is weaned, or 
when it reaches eleven or twelve months of age, if it is artificially 
fed, solid or semi-solid food is added to its diet. Many peo- 
ple are very careful as long as a child is being bottle-fed, but 
as it grows older become careless, often just at a time when 
the problem is most difficult. The stomach troubles that attack 
children during their second summer are due to this care- 
lessness. 

A growing child needs a varied diet. It must be rich in pro- 
tein and should contain the fresh, green fruits and vegetables that 
furnish the needed mineral salts for bones and teeth and prevent 
constipation. Fat, too, is most important. Some authorities be- 
lieve that a diet too low in fat tends to deprive the body of its nor- 
mal supply of calcium and magnesium salts, and is apt to lead to 
serious nutritional disturbances. In addition to proteins, fats, 
and green vegetables, a good supply of carbohydrates is needed. 
Too much of this should not be in the form of sugar, on account 
of the digestive disturbances that will follow. Milk should al- 
ways form an important part of the food of any child under five, 
and is most valuable for older children also; no child should take 
more than a quart of milk in twenty-four hours. 

As a child grows older increase the amount given at each 
meal, but do not feed it more frequently. An uncomfortable 
feeling due to indigestion causes children to fret, and older 
people try to comfort them by giving more food. 

In preparing food for the child as for the sick only the most 
hygienic methods of preparation should be used. 



312 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

The schedule given below will be found most satisfactory for 
children in their second year. Some authorities do not recom- 
mend eggs for children. 

DIET FOR SECOND YEAR 

6:00 A, M. — 7 oz. of plain fresh milk (from the bottle if desired); 
do not use a very rich milk. (If using milk sugar, lime water, and barley- 
water, reduce the barley water a little at a time until down to one ounce; 
then omit entirely. 

9:30 or 10:00 — Give a strained cereal with butter or top milk (start 
with a tablespoonful of cereal) ; after this give one-third cup of sweet 
orange juice, or a little fresh apple sauce rubbed through a sieve. (Always 
give fruits last; if given first they interfere with the digestion of starches.) 

12:30 or after the morning nap serve dinner, giving first the juice from 
one-half pound of round steak. Every other day use a soft cooked egg sea- 
soned with butter and salt, instead of the beef juice. Dish gravy may occa- 
sionally be substituted for the beef juice. Then give a little well cooked 
vegetable that has been pressed through a sieve and daintily seasoned; car- 
rots, spinach, asparagus tops, tender string beans, young peas, and summer 
squash may be used. Begin with one tablespoonful and use in all two or 
three tablespoonfuls. A dessert is not needed, but a little soft custard, cup 
custard, junket, or cornstarch pudding may be given, 

3:30 — Give from four to seven ounces of plain milk, as in the morning, 

6:00 or 6:30 — Serve supper. Use rolled oats rubbed through a sieve, or 
cream of wheat, or well cooked mush with top milk or a little butter. 
Never serve sugar on cereals. Then put the baby to bed, and give him a 
bottle if he is accu^omed to it, 

FEEDING AN OLDER CHILD 

Even after the second year children should be carefully fed ; 
they should be fed five times a day until they are four or five 
years old, a small meal being given in the middle of the morning 
and afternoon. 

Fried foods, pastries, condiments, pickles, preserves, canned 
meats and fish, pork and sausage, cheap candies, coarse vege- 
tables, unripe or overripe fruits, stimulants, foods treated with 
preservatives or colors, and half cooked starches, whether in the 
form of griddle cakes or cereals should not be given to young 
children. 



DIET OF THE CHILD 313 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What is the result of bad feeding in childhood? What is the best food 
for infants? What is the best substitute for mother's milk? How does 
cow's milk differ from human milk? What is added to make it more like 
human milk in composition? What is the standard protein requirement 
for babies for twenty-four hours? What are the caloric requirements 
of a child up to six months old? From six to nine? Wiiat are the daily- 
caloric requirements of a child six months old weighing fifteen pounds? 
Compare this with that of a man weighing one hundred and fifty-four pounds 
at light work. (See page 279.) How many ounces of milk would 
the child need? How much food can he take at a feeding? How much 
water should be added? How much malt sugar? How many ounces in the 
whole mixture? How many feedings should be given? At what hours should 
the food be given? How often should the child be fed? How long should 
he spend in taking his food? Why is the manner of holding the baby so 
important? What are the best hours for feeding for children under eight 
months old? Why is regularity so important? 

Make a list of utensils needed for feeding a baby. Estimate the cost. 
Describe the best type of nipple. Give method of preparing malt sugar. 
(See Recipe.) How should milk be warmed? How tested for proper tem- 
perature? What would cost least for heating the baby's milk, gas, alcohol, 
or electricity? Could hot water be kept in the fireless cooker for use when 
needed? What methods of heating baby food are available in your locality? 
Why not keep the baby's milk warm in a thermos bottle from one feeding 
to another? Why not keep the milk left in the bottle after a feeding? 
Give rules for cleansing and caring for utensils. 

What food is given to a baby for the first twenty-four hours? (See 
page 310.) For the remainder of the week ? Why must children be carefully 
fed during the second year? What food is needed? How can vegetables 
and fruit be prepared so as to cause no digestive trouble? How much milk 
may be given in a day? How many ounces in a quart of milk? If a 
child does not care for plain milk, in what form could it be prepared 
so that he would take it? How many meals does the child receive ac- 
cording to the schedule? Why not feed him between meals? When should 
water be given? How often should older children be fed? What foods 
are forbidden for them? If a child eats much sugar, candy, or other sweets 
how is his appetite affected for the other plain but needed foods? If a 
child's first teeth are very poor what was the probable cause? How could 
he be fed to make the second teeth better? Why are cold luncheons 
objectionable? 



314 THE SCIENCE OP HOME MAKING 

EECIPES 

Malt Sugar 

Allow one ounce of boiling water for each ounce of malt sugar. Dissolve 
the sugar in the water and boil for five minutes, then add enough boiled 
tvater to equal the original amount of water. Strain into a sterilized bottle, 
cork tightly, and keep on ice. Enough for two or three days may be made 
at once. (Explanation — Nine ounces of malt sugar and nine ounces of water 
may be reduced to less than nine ounces by boiling; then water enough is 
added to make nine ounces. One ounce of the solution will contain one 
ounce of malt sugar.) This is a very convenient form in which to use the 
sugar. Malt sugar seems easier of digestion than milk sugar. 

Fat Free or Skimmed Milk 

Use milk from which cream was obtained in the previous recipe, drawing 
off lower one-third with a syphon, or use milk from separator. Milk without 
fat is often used for children recovering from summer complaint or loo^e 
bowels. 

Barley Water 

Wash a tablespoonful of pearl barley. Cover with one quart of cold 
water. Cook gently until reduced to one pint. Strain. 

Flour Ball Gruel 

To prepare the flour ball, tie a pint of flour closely in a square of 
cheesecloth so that a very tight ball is formed. Place it in hot water and 
boil for six hours. Remove it from the cloth, take off the outside, and 
grate the remainder. Dry for two hours in a very moderate oven. When 
thoroughly dry put in a glass jar or some receptacle that can be tightly 
covered. 

For the gruel use one teaspoonful of the flour rubbed to a paste with 
two teaspoonfuls of cold water. Measure one cup of boiling water; put it 
into a saucepan and add one-half teaspoonful of sugar and one-eighth tea- 
spoonful of salt. Bring to the boiling point. Then add the flour mixture. 
Cook for ten minutes. 

Oat Jelly- 
Soak half a cup of coarse oatmeal in a quart of cold water over night; 
then cook down to a pint. Strain through a cheesecloth. Keep on ice until 
ready to use. It may be warmed to soften it sufliciently to mix with milk. 
Cracked wheat or rice may be used. 



DIET OF THE CHILD 3^5 

Oatmeal Gruel 

(See Invalid Cookery, page 329.) 

Orange Juice 

Select sweet oranges; scrub well and plunge into boiling water for a 
moment. Squeeze and strain the juice through two thicknesses of sterilized 
cheesecloth. Give one teaspoonful at a time, diluting with cooled boiled 
water to make it palatable. 

Albumin Water 

Use the white of one absolutely fresh raw egg. Cut it very fine, using 
a knife and fork. Add one cup of cooled boiled water and a tiny pinch of 
salt. Shake together in a bottle. Strain through cheesecloth and keep 
on ice. 

Dish Gravy 

If roast beef is prepared with a little salt and no pepper or made gravy, 
the juice that flows into the dish as the meat is cut may take the place 
of beef juice in the child's diet. This juice must contain no burned bits of 
skin or fat. 

Beef Juice 

Select a round steak one inch thick. Remove fat, and wipe clean with a 
damp cloth. Broil in an ungreased pan until well seared and heated through. 
Lift on to a hot plate and cut into small pieces that will fit a lemon squeezer 
or meat press. Cut several gashes in each piece so that the juice will be 
more easily extracted. Have ready a hot cup, press the juice into it, and 
serve at once. If the juice is not warm enough place the cup in a vessel 
of hot water for a few moments, but do not allow it to become hot enough 
to coagulate the albumin of the juice. 

Peptonized Milk 

Peptonized milk is sometimes ordered for weak babies. Use the com- 
mercial tablets or use fifteen grains of bicarbonate of soda and five grains 
of pancreatine to a pint of milk and water. Dissolve the tablet or drugs 
in one-half cup of cool boiled water. Put it in the upper part of a double 
boiler with one and one-half cups of milk and have the water in the lower 
vessel at about 115° F. Keep the mixture over it for about five minutes, 
then cool and keep on ice. To peptonize entirely let stand over the hot water 
for twenty minutes. If it is to be kept for some time heat to the boiling 
point to stop peptonization. Mako only a little at a time, as it becomes bitter. 



316 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

THE SCHOOL LUNCHEON 

Knowing the needs of the growing body, the student could 
point out many errors in his own diet or in that of his school- 
mates. Some of the most glaring faults are in the use of much 
cake and pastry ; ofteji these are purchased from venders who 
sell the poorest quality. 

The Cold Luncheon. If the cold luncheon is a necessity 
let it be appetizing, nourishing, and digestible. Use chicken, 
turkey, beef, mutton, or egg, and occasionalh- minced ham for 
sandwiches. (See Sandwiches.) Lettuce or celery sandwiches 
become wilted before they are used. Sandwiches of chopped 
nuts and raisins or dates may be used for older children. Fresh 
tomatoes cut when they are eaten are very appetizing. With the 
meats a home-made sweet pickle is allowable. Stuffed eggs in- 
stead of a meat sandwich may form the protein ration. A cup 
custard is nourishing and appetizing. For little children a small 
bottle of milk is very good. 

Besides two or more substantial sandwiches the lunch basket 
should contain some pleasing but simple sweet, such as a little 
home-made candy, plain cookies, or sugared popcorn prepared 
at home. Children are tempted to exchange the carefully pre- 
pared luncheon for some indigestible sweet and it is well to put 
up some of the least harmful of these childish delights. 

Fresh, if possible, and if not, dried fruit should be found in 
every lunch basket. Mellow apples are particularly desirable. 
Of the dried fruits, figs and dates are popular; while prunes 
washed and slightly soaked, then stuffed with whole or ground 
nuts, will be very much enjo^^ed, or they may be used without 
stuffing. Omit nuts for very little children. 

Putting Up the Luncheon. (See Sandwiches, also Picnic 
Menus.) A lunch box or basket is the most convenient receptacle 
for the luncheon, if the pupil is willing to carry it home ; if not a 
clean paper bag will do. They may be bought very cheaply by 
the hundred. If a tin pail is used it sliould have a tew tiny 
perforations near the bottom and in the lid so that air may 
circulate. 



DIET OF THE CHILD 3;L7 

Provide paraffin paper for wrai:>piiig the food and paper 
napkins for lining the basket and for the use of the child when 
eating. 

Make everything as dainty as possible. Wrap each egg, sand- 
wich, or other piece of food neatly in paraffin paper. Provide 
salt shakers, a spoon or fork, if needed, and a drinking cup for 
each child. 

The Hot Luncheon at School. Tests in various parts of the 
country liave proved that a warm and nutritious luncheon served 
at school has been of great value to the pupils, improving them 
physically as well as improving the quality of their mental work. 
If the lunch room facilities are limited, onl}^ one warm dish may 
be served and this may be supplemented by food brought from 
home or prepared at school. 

In some small districts the children might bring the materials 
for the hot dish from home. Among the desirable hot dishes 
are soups with vegetables, hot meat sandwiches, stew of meat 
and potatoes or rice, chicken with rice, macaroni and cheese, 
baked beans, and cocoa made with milk. 

In a city or large school a special lunch room is to be pre- 
ferred and should be under expert management; it is usually 
self-supporting. 

The following menus are practical and popular : 

Macaroni with grated cheese and white sauce, bread and butter and 
baked apples. 

Irish stew, bread and butter, sweet sandwiches, fruit — apples or bananas. 
Beef soup with vegetables, ham sandwiches, baked or raw apples. 
Cream of potato ?oup, beef sandwiches, fresh fruit or cookies. 
Beef sandwiches, sweet sandwiches, cocoa. 

The Serving of the Luncheon. Whether the luncheon be 
hot or cold it should be daintily served, in a clean place, and 
with the children comfortably seated. The luncheon hour should 
be a social occasion and the laws of good breeding should be ob- 
served just as carefully as in the home dining room. 



318 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

QUESTIONS AND PKOBLEMS 

What are the food requirements of growing cliiMreu? What arc some 
of the common mistakes in the school child 's diet ? What food should be 
forbidden? Why? Write down your daily menus for a week, including your 
school luncheon. Compai'O your menu with your food requirements. What is 
lacking? How could the defect be remedied? If there is no way of improv- 
ing the school luncheon, plan a breakfast and supper that would balance 
your diet. Should a young child eat at the morning recess, or between 
noon and the evening meal ? Compare the daily menu of any young school 
cliild you know with his bodily recjuirements. What does he eat after 
school? Is his daily food ration a good one? What are its defects? 

Could a luncheon be served in your school? If in the rural districts 
could the pupils bring supplies for an appetizing hot dish? Would it be 
possible for a small group of pupils to prepare soup or other hot dish each 
day? How could the work be arranged so that no pupil would be engaged in 
this work more tlian once a week ? If you have a lunch room in your school 
note the most popular dishes. How could the pupils he influenced to a good 
selection of food? Could the school sell fruit cheaper than the peddlers! 
Why? Prepare and put up a good cold school luncheon. Compare this 
with the average school luncheon, considering time and cost, digestibility, 
food value, and a|)pearance. Write a menu for a hot school luncheon ; pre- 
pare and serve it to a group of pupils if time permits; note cost per pupil 
and time required for prejiaration. What can you say of the manner in 
which luncheon is served and eaten in your school? How could luncheon 
time be made a time of social training. Could you have a discussion of the 
value of correct social usages in your class? 



CHAPTER III 

HOME NURSING 
THE CARE OF THE SICK 

Only a few people can afford a trained nnrse except in 
serious emergencies, but the comfort or even the recovery of 
a sick person depends very much on skillful nursing. Much 
can be learned by study and practice, particularly^ if one observes 
a trained nurse at work whenever there is an opportunity. 

Room and Furnishings. In selecting a room for the sick 
choose one that has plenty of fresh air and sunshine ; one with 
a southern exposure is best in most parts of the country. It 
should be as far as possible from the noises of the street and of 
the household, and should be free from the odors of the kitchen. 
A room on the upper floor is better than one downstairs. Take 
out all heavy rugs and draperies; the more furniture in a room 
the less space for air. Draperies and rugs catch dust and 
germs. Make the room attractive with well-adjusted shades and 
short, washable curtains, clean, white covers for the tables, and 
small rugs that can be easily removed for cleaning. Keep a few 
bright flowers of delicate odor in the room in day time, changing 
the water every day. 

A plain metal bed in single or three-quarter width is best; 
it is almost impossible to keep the sheet of a wider bed tight 
enough to prevent wrinkles. The bed should be about twenty- 
five inches high ; if it is not high enough, it may be raised on 
blocks of wood, holloAved out about two inches at the top to fit 
the legs. This height makes it easy to handle the patient. Have 
the bed far enough from the wall to be reached from both sides. 
Select a firm, comfortable mattress; one made of hair is best. Use 

319 



320 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

light, warm, single blankets and soft, smooth sheets and pillow 
cases. 

It is best to have the light come from the head of the bed 
so that it will not disturb the patient. Do not keep the room 
dark, but protect the eyes of the patient from any strong light. 
Cover the head of a metal bed with a sheet if there is a draft. 

Provide two tables, one of a convenient height near the bed- 
side, the other for the nse of the doctor and the nurse. 

In cleaning the room follow the directions given for house- 
cleaning. Wipe floors and woodwork with an oiled cloth. Raise 
no dust, and work with as little noise as possible. Disinfect 
mops and cloths each time they are used, if the disease is infec- 
tious ; use a mop wrung out of a carbolic solution. 

If the nurse must sleep in the room provide a comfortable 
couch or cot. 

Ventilate the room as directed in Household Sanitation ; fresh 
air is even more important in sickness than in health. Except 
in very cold weatlier open the windows wide twice a day, first 
putting an extra blanket over tlie patient and protecting his 
head by a screen or an umbrella. 

Cooling the Room. In hot close weather an electric fan is 
a necessity for a sick room in a crowded city; a palm leaf 
fan will afford some relief. Late investigations show that the 
depressed feeling experienced during a liot wave is due to the 
fact that the layer of air next to the body acts like a blanket to 
keep in the body heat. If the air is put in circulation the body 
is cooled. For delicate babies who must spend the summer in 
the city an electric fan is most useful. Care must be used to 
prevent drafts. 

In hot, dry climates the sprinkling of porches and roofs will 
serve to cool the air. A sheet wrung from cold water may be 
iumg in a door or window. These measures are not adapted to 
very damp climates because the cooling sensation depends on the 
possible evaporation, and if the air is very humid there can be 
little evaporation. In very hot weather a large piece of ice may 
be put near the bed where a draft will pass over it. 



HOME NUKSING 



321 



Making the Bed. (Review To Make a Bed, page 33.) 
Cover the mattress with a soft, smooth sheet, tucking it in 
as far as possible so that it will be very firm, and folding 
the corners like an envelope. (If the sheet wrinkles it may 
cause bed sores.) Over this lay a sheet folded lengthwise with 
the length across the bed (if it becomes soiled it may be removed 
without disturbing the patient; it is known as the draw sheet), 
so that it may be stretched very tight and smooth. First tuck 
it in on one side, then go to the other side and, beginning at the 
middle, tuck firmly toward the foot of bed. Begin again at the 
middle and tuck in toward the head of the bed. Now put on 
the top sheet, tucking it at the lower corners as was done at 
the corners of the first sheet. Then put on the blankets one at 
a time in the same way. Use a very light spread or a sheet for 
the top. If a rubber sheet is used it is put between the lower 
and the draw sheets. Soft, double-faced rubber is best as it is 
very easily cleaned. 

To Change the Sheet While the Patient Is in Bed. Have 
everything ready before the patient is disturbed. Air and warm 
the sheets and pillow cases. Take off the spread and one blanket 
if more than one is used; fold the remaining blanket and sheet 
over the patient, leaving them just wide enough to cover well. 
This will keep the patient warm and the cover will not be in the 
way. Raise the mattress with one hand and slip the sheets from 
under it ; do this on each side and at the foot and head. Work 
gently so as not to jar the patient. Remove the pillow and re- 
place it with a fresh, warm one. Next change the gown, if it is 
to be changed. Then turn the patient to one side, facing out at 
one side of bed. (See picture, page 322.) Roll the lower and draw 
sheets neatly into a soft roll at the patient 's back ; now tuck in 
the clean lower sheet and draw sheets on one-half the bed as 
directed for making the bed. Roll remainder of sheets in a soft 
roll, open side down, close up to the patient's back. Then roll 
the patient very gently on to the clean sheets and remove the 
soiled ones. Draw the clean sheets over the other half of the 
bed and tuck them in closely and smoothly. Lay a clean, warm. 



322 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



top sheet over the cover on the patient and over this put a fresh 
warmed blanket or the one removed, which has been aired ; then 
slip out those underneath and put on another fresh blanket, if 
needed, and a fresh spread or sheet. Air all blankets well when 
not in use, and be sure that they have no unpleasant odors about 
them. Change the draw and top sheets twice a day, unless the 
patient is too weak. The sheets need not be washed every time 
unless soiled, but may be aired and ironed smooth and used 




CHANGING THE SHEETS WITH THE PATIENT IN BED 



twice. Work quietly and quickly while you are changing the 
sheets, and let the patient rest and be quiet afterwards. 

Changing the Gown. Change the gown twice a day. Air 
and warm it, draw the sleeves up until each forms a narrow 
ring; roll the skirt up so that it can be slipped over the head 
easily. 

Let the patient rise to a sitting position if strong enough; 
if not, pass the hands under the hips and slip up the soiled 
gown. Lift the shoulders in the same way and draw the gown 
over the head, at the same time raising the arms. Now slip the 
sleeves over the hands and then up the arms. Put the clean 
gown over the head and pull it down very smoothly, lifting first 



HOME NURSING . 323 

the shoulders, then the hips. If one arm is injured take the 
sleeve off it last and put it in the clean sleeve first. 

Turning the Patient. Loosen the side of the draw sheet on 
the side of the bed opposite that to which you wish to turn 
the patient ; turn this half of the sheet over the patient. Grasp 
the sheet firmly in your hands and pull it toward you. When 
the patient is turned far enough (a little farther than is needed, 
so there will he no tendency to slip back) slip one hand under 
the back at the hips and pull the hip slightly back, to prevent 
rolling. Then rearrange the draw sheet, tucking it in tight and 
smooth. This is better than turning by putting the hands under 
the body. 

To Lift the Patient to a Sitting Position. Stand at the side 
of the bed and bend your knees so as to bring your body almost 
to a level with the bed. Slip hands under the patient 's shoulder 
and the edge of the pillow with the elbow under his head and 
under the pillow, and your hands under his arm pit on the 
other side. Let patient put his arm over your shoulder, then 
lift, bearing the burden on the shoulders rather than on the 
back. Stand firmly on both feet. Always I'eep the pillow under 
the patient's head, as the back of the neck is very tender and 
the pressure of the hands may be painful. 

To Move the Patient from One Bed to Another. Make the 
fresh bed as directed, pinning the lower and draw sheet firmly 
on the sides, foot, and head with safety pins. Turn the cover 
back over the foot. Pin the lower sheets of the patient's bed 
in the same way. Put a heavy blanket under the patient. Have 
the fresh bed as close as possible to the patient's bed. Push the 
mattresses close together, then take the edge of the blanket 
and pull steadily until the patient is on the fresh bed. Keep 
patient covered all the time. Slip out the blanket and make him 
comfortable. 

To Change the Mattress. A fresh mattress is often a great 
relief to the patient. Put on the lower and draw sheets and pin 
firmly ; then put the blanket under the patient and move to one 
side of the bed. Draw the mattress back until his side of it is 



324 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

in the middle of the bed. Have the other mattress with lower 
sheets firmly pinned on. Put it closely against his mattress, and 
draw him on to it by means of the blanket. Remove the other 
mattress and draw the fresh one into place. This does not excite 
the patient as lifting does. 

Prevention of Bed Sores. Bed sores are very painful trou- 
bles that may afflict the patient during a long illness. Great 
care is needed to prevent them since they are due to pressure on 
bony parts, such as shoulder blades, heels, lower part of spine, 
and elbows. Wrinkles in the sheets, crumbs in the bed, or 
moisture that softens and irritates the skin may cause them. 
Make a careful search for crumbs after each meal. Keep the 
bed and clothing smooth and clean, rub the back every day with 
a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and water, and wash the 
parts where sores are apt to appear, or where the skin is red, 
twice a day with warm water and a good soap. Then rub with 
the alcohol solution, and dust lightly with a good talcum pow- 
der. Change the position of the invalid often and support the 
tender part on a small rubber air cushion with a hole in the 
center, over which the irritated part may rest. If the skin is 
very tender paint with equal parts of collodion and castor oil. 
If the skin becomes broken secure the services of a physician. 

Bathing. Unless the doctor directs otherwise the patient 
should have a bath every day. Sometimes a little broth may 
be agreeable immediately after the bath. Never give a bath 
until at least an hour after eating. 

Have the room warm and use water of a pleasing temperature 
unless otherwise directed. Get towels, soap, alcohol, and every- 
thing else ready and warm the towels. Put the patient between 
the folds of a soft warm blanket, having it come up to the neck. 
Then take off the gown and wrap the blanket around the patient. 
Wash the face and hands first. Use a firm gentle stroke and dry 
each part quickly. Then bathe the remainder of the body, uncov- 
ering only a part at a time and drying each part well. If pre- 
ferred the hands may be slipped between the blankets and no 
portion of the body uncovered. Turn the patient but once; 



HOME NUESING 325 

bathe the front of the body first, then turn as far over as pos- 
sible and wash the back, keeping it well covered, except the 
portion you are bathing. 

Bathing Fever Patients. Use water of the temperature the 
doctor directs ; tepid water usually is most soothing. The bath 
should last twenty minutes. There is little danger of taking 
cold in fever. Use long slow strokes, going over each part of 
the body several times. 

The Teeth and Hair. The teeth must be cleaned often. If 
the invalid cannot brush them wipe the mouth carefully with a 
cloth on the finger wet with a mild antiseptic, cleaning teeth, 
roof of mouth, and tongue. Use a boric acid solution, or equal 
parts of listerine and water. Do not use any wash that is dis- 
agreeable to the patient. 

Brush the hair twice a day, and rub the scalp gently with al- 
cohol and water or some pleasing hair tonic. 

Taking the Temperature. Get the physician or nurse to 
show you how to take the temperature of a patient. When 
buying a thermometer select one wdth clear figures, so that it can 
be read easily; the cheap ones are not satisfactory. Before 
using the thermometer wash it very clean and dip in listerine. 
Shake it gently down to 95°, being careful not to hit 
anything hard. If using it often put it in a narrow glass with 
enough listerine to come up over it, first putting some antiseptic 
cotton in the bottom. Do not take the temperature soon after 
the patient has been eating or drinking. When ready put the 
bulb under the patient's tongue, on either side, and see that the 
lips are kept closed ; from three to five minutes will be needed, 
depending on the kind of thermometer used. Clean the ther- 
mometer as soon as the reading is over. 

The Normal Temperature. The normal temperature of the 
body is from 98° to 99° F. It is apt to be highest from four to 
eight o'clock in the afternoon and lowest at three in the morning. 
This lowering of the temperature shows us that the strength is 
less at this hour, and that we should take special care of the sick 



326 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

at this time. A temperature above normal denotes fever due to 
inflammation in some part of the body. 

A Subnormal Temperature. A temperature below normal 
shows great weakness and a physician should be consulted as 
soon as possible. If the temperature goes as much as one de- 
gree below normal wrap the patient in blankets, put hot water 
bags at the feet, and give a cup of hot milk, tea, or coffee. 

Giving Medicine. In giving medicine always be sure that 
the spoon or glass is clean. Buy a graduated medicine glass if 
possible. Read the label before the medicine is poured out and 
again afterward. Give only as much as directed, give it on time, 
and prepare it exactly as directed. Shake all liquids before 
measuring. Never attract the patient's attention to the medi- 
cine beforehand. Cork the bottle immediately and keep it out 
of sight. Keep poisons in a locked closet. 

Poultices and Hot Applications. Poultices are used to 
relieve pain and to soften the tissues. Do not continue poulticing 
too long or the skin will be irritated. The size of the poultice 
depends on the ailment. For internal pain a poultice should 
cover a surface much larger than the seat of the pain, while for 
a boil or wound a small poultice just a little larger than the spot 
is used'. Cloths wrung from hot water are used like poultices, 
and are considered more effective in many cases than dry heat. 
Follow the directions for poultices and change when the cloths 
begin to cool. Some of the proprietary substitutes for poultices 
are now widely used. 

Application of Dry Heat. Use a thin bag filled with heated 
sand, salt, or bran ; bran is the lightest. Hot water bags also are 
used; they should have covers of soft flannel so there will be 
no danger of burning. 

Cold Applications. Cold applications may be either in the 
form of ice bags or cold cloths. Fill a rubber bag half full of 
bits of ice less than an inch square, slip the bag into a cover of 
soft silk or linen, and apply to the part in pain. Remove while 
still ice cold. Do not use too large a bag. 



HOME NURSING 327 

For the cold cloths lay pieces of muslin on ice, squeeze and 
fold in several thicknesses, lay over the seat of pain, and cover 
with oiled silk or rubber. If nothing else is to be had several 
thicknesses of soft paper may be used. 

Precautions Against Infection. In all infectious diseases 
great care is needed to prevent the disease from being carried 
to other people. The one who is nursing the patient is responsi- 
ble for this. In tuberculosis the discharges from the mouth and 
throat carry the disease; they must, therefore, be destroyed 
promptly. Get some of the pamphlets issued by the ''National 
Society for Prevention of Tuberculosis" (105 East Twenty- 
second Street, New York City), and see how this may be done. 
In typhoid fever the germs are carried in the excreta from the 
bowels and kidneys. (See Disinfecting Plumbing Fixtures, 
page 36.) 

When caring for persons ill of diphtheria, mumps, scarlet 
fever, or meningitis use an antiseptic spray for the mouth and 
nose, and wash the hands in a disinfectant after handling the 
patient. 

Disinfect everything used in the sick room. All dishes must 
be sterilized by being boiled and should not be sent to the family 
kitchen. 

To Disinfect Clothing. Soak all body and bed linen in a car- 
bolic solution for one hour (five ounces of acid to one gallon of 
water). To disinfect a mattress, use the carbolic solution and 
apply with a brush. 

To Disinfect a Room. Formaldehyde gas is a convenient 
disinfectant, but the latest investigations seem to prove that 
thorough cleaning removes most germs. Destroy all fabrics that 
cannot be steamed or boiled. If possible cleanse the walls with 
a vacuum cleaner; if not, brush to remove the dust. Scrub 
painted woodwork with soap suds. Clean polished woodwork 
with oiled cloths, rubbing very thoroughly. Scrub the floors 
and apply a disinfecting solution. Then air and if possible sun 
the room for several days. In most infectious diseases the germs 
are only on those articles that have been in contact with the 



328 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

patient. In pulmonary diseases, however, they may be thrown 
some distance by coughing. 

Disinfectant for the Nurse's Hands. For the nurse's hands 
use a solution of bichloride of mercury ; one grain tablet to five 
pints of water. Use the prepared tablets ; those that make a blue 
solution are safest, as the color is a warning of danger. Keep 
in a porcelain basin. Bichloride of mercury is a deadly poison; 
never leave it within reach of children or with other medicines. 
After washing the hands in the solution, rinse in clean water. 

Some Rules for the Sick Room. Avoid unnecessary noise. 
Put a thick narrow pad over the latch of the door, fastening 
one end to each knob. "Wedge blinds that rattle with folded 
paper ; oil door hinges ; keep no rocking chairs in the sick room, 
as the rocking may disturb the patient. "While the room should 
be quiet, do not whisper but speak in a soft pleasant tone, never 
in a mournful monotone. When speaking to the patient, stand 
where you can be seen. Be careful not to touch the bed in 
moving about. 

Do not tell the patient what medicine is being given, or what 
his pulse and temperature are. Be cheerful and try not to show 
anxiety. Do not speak of his condition where he can hear 
you. Never leave the door ajar, but shut it gently. 

At night get everything ready before the patient goes to sleep 
so there will be no danger of waking him. 

How the Nurse Should Care for Herself. Sleep whenever 
possible. Take meals regularly, but not in the sick room. Take 
a short walk every day. Get a daily bath and change the cloth- 
ing. Wear comfortable clothing and soft low heeled shoes. 
Some persons in caring for a sick member of the family give no 
thought to their own health, and so become physically unable 
to properly attend to the patient. Very often such nurses 
decline to let anyone else take charge of the patient even for a 
short time, forgetting that the nurse can best show her love 
for the sick one by taking care of herself, so that she will be 
able to do efficient nursing when it is needed. 



HOME NURSING 329 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Tell how to select a room for the sick. Why should the furnishings be 
few and simple? Describe the furnishings. Why is a single bed to be pre- 
ferred? What is the proper height of the bed? How can it be adjusted if 
it is too low? Describe the bed linen and blankets. Where shall the bed 
be placed? 

Give directions for ventilating the sick room. How shall it be cooled 
in hot weather? 

What are the important points in making the bed? Tell how to change 
the sheets with the patient in bed. How to change the patient's gown. 
How to turn patient in bed. Describe the method of moving patient from 
one bed to another. How to change the mattress with the patient in bed. 
What causes bed sores? How can they be prevented? 

Give directions for bathing the patient in bed. What temperature of 
water is most desirable for fever patients? 

Tell how to select a thermometer. What is the normal temperature of the 
body? What does a high temperature indicate? What should be done 
for a person with a subnormal temperature? 

What precautions must be observed in giving medicine? How should 
poisons be kept? 

Describe the various methods of making hot and cold applications. 

What precautions should be used to prevent the spread of the various 
infectious diseases? Write a brief list of the most feared diseases and the 
methods of preventing infection. How may clothing be disinfected? 

How may the nurse disinfect her hands? How should she care for 
her health? 

INVALID COOKERY 

(Review the effect of heat on the different foods; also review 
Food and Digestion.) 

In planning meals for the sick, economy except among the 
very poor should not be a serious consideration ; whatever will 
hasten recovery should be provided ; do not waste expensive ma- 
terials, or provide them in a greater quantity than is needed. 

The method of preparation is most important; a fried egg 
for example might cause acute indigestion, where one delicately 
poached, or served in eggnog, would be easily assimilated. 

The appetite of a sick person should be stimulated by the 
appearance of the food served. A light dainty tray of the proper 



330 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

size should be covered with a spotless, white cloth that just fits 
it; arrange the daintiest china, placing it as it would be on the 
table; it should not be overcrowded. Lay on the tray a bright 
flower with only a delicate odor, or put it in a tiny vase if there 
is room. As in other serving, hot food must be hot, cold food 
cold, but remember that cold foods are more difficult of digestion 
than hot, so use them sparingly, unless otherwise directed. Ices 
should be served alone as a meal, and eaten very slowly. Never 
give the patient anything that is unappetizing in appearance. 
Serve small portions, and remove the tray as soon as the patient 
has finished eating. 

Never discuss menus with patients ; study likes and dislikes 
without their knowledge, and select the food accordingly. Al- 
ways serve their meals on time. 

The following articles are strictly prohibited for most sick 
people : pork, veal, quick breads, hot breads, fried foods, pastries, 
highly seasoned combinations, coarse vegetables, rich desserts, 
most sweets and condiments, most cold food. Use only fresh 
clean foods for the sick. Cold storage eggs and chickens, meat, 
or vegetables are not safe foods for them. 

INVALID DIETS 

Invalid diets have been divided into liquid, soft, soft solid, 
and light solid, or convalescent. 

Liquid Diet. A liquid diet includes beef juice, broth, egg 
albumin, eggnog, cream soup and gruels (strained), fruit juice, 
cocoa, and tea. Cooked eggs, even if very soft, are not liquids. 
In some cases milk is not allowed. 

Soft Diet. A soft diet may include soft cooked eggs, junket, 
custard, toast, gelatin, and meat jellies. 

Soft Solid Diet. For a soft solid diet add to the above list 
cream toast and very delicate vegetables such as asparagus tips 
and summer squash (steamed or baked). 

Light Solid or Convalescent Diet. A light solid, or con- 
valescent diet may include tender broiled meat (either beef, 
mutton, fish, chicken, or squab), boiled rice, baked potatoes, a 



HOME NUKSING 331 

little well cooked corn bread, or a thin dry roll. Remember that 
most relapses, except in some infectious diseases, are caused 
either hy over-feeding or over-exertion. 

Special Diets. When the physician orders a special diet, 
the proper methods of cooking each dish should be strictly car- 
ried out. There are some general rules that apply to each class 
of diseases even if you have not the physician's advice. 

Unless otherwise directed give fever patients a liquid diet 
only. 

Patients ill of diarrhoea should have only bland food (food 
containing little irritating fat) served hot; arrow-root gruel, 
rice water, and tea may be used. For less severe cases well cooked 
rice is good. Hot foods check peristalsis, while cold ones stim- 
ulate the movement of the bowels. 

Persons with an irritated condition of the stomach who are 
nauseated and who suffer from intestinal pains upon taking food 
should be given egg albumin; milk in cases like this is not 
digestible. If the condition is not too acute orange eggnog 
without sugar is sometimes pleasing. 

For the constipated instead of rice and arrow-root use corn- 
meal gruel, beef broths and juices, and milk sugar in beverages. 
Tea is an astringent and should be very weak, if used at all in 
these cases. 

Each case of illness presents a feeding problem of its own, 
so get the physician's advice on the subject, then apply all you 
know of healthful food preparation in carrying out his 
instructions. 

Nervous Indigestion. In a case of nervous indigestion give a nourishing, 
easily digested diet. Let the patient rest half an hour before meals. Do not 
permit him to discuss food and its effect at the table. He should drink 
water freely half an hour before eating, but not with meals. A cup of 
some hot beverage may be taken at the end of the meal. Avoid all indi- 
gestible articles. Many sufferers from this ailment grow worse because of 
malnutrition. The following schedule followed for some weeks will be 
beneficial. 

Upon rising in the morning take the juice of two sweet oranges. The 
breakfast should consist of an easily digested cereal with cream, a soft egg 



332 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

and toast, weak tea or cereal coffee. At dinner, a broiled chop, chicken, fish 
or steak, potato or rice, a tender green vegetable — summer squash, or a 
puree of tender string beans or like vegetable — toast, stale bread or hot 
water corn bread, blueberries or ripe figs should be eaten. At supper take 
a soft egg or chop with toast, or a cereal with cream. 

Anemia. This disease requires very nourishing and easily digested food. 
The schedule given for nervous indigestion may be followed for the chronic 
stage, 

A diet somewhat rich in protein and green vegetables and fresh fruit is 
desirable. Some authorities believe that a carbohydrate diet with an allow- 
ance of milk is best. Marrow fat from the leg bones of beef, boiled in the 
bones and served on toast, is recommended. 

In the acute stage hot or cold milk and egg albumin are used. 

Bright 's Disease. In Bright 's disease give only easily digested food; 
an attaek of acute indigestion may prove fatal. The diet must be low in 
protein. Restrict the quantity of meat and eggs. If there is dropsy use 
the least possible amount of salt. Avoid condiments and all rich dishes; 
give simple foods simply cooked. 

Diabetes. In feeding a patient who has diabetes, use little carbohydrate. 
All sweets are prohibited, as are rice, macaroni, and other starchy foods, 
except bread, oatmeal, and potatoes in limited quantities. Proper feeding 
is most important in these cases. Consult a good physician and follow his 
directions carefully. 

Tuberculosis. In the case of tubercular patients, the food must replace 
the great tissue waste that is going on. Milk, eggs, and meat may be 
used freely, but be careful not to overfeed, as any digestive disturbance in- 
terrupts progress. A carefully chosen nutritious diet that is well digested is 
far better than a very rich one that is not assimilated. Use fresh vegetables 
and fruits with the tissue building foods, as the appetite and digestion will 
be better for the variety. Well cooked starchy foods may be used in mod- 
erate quantities. Do not give pastries, preserves, pickled meats, fish, hash, 
or fried foods. 

RECIPES FOR INVALIDS 

The following recipes will be of use in preparing food for 
the sick. Others mentioned are found with recipes for children. 

Oatmeal Gruel 

% c. rolled oats IV2 c. boiling water 

1/4 tsp. salt cream or milk 

Put the boiling water in the upper part of a double boiler, directly over 
the fire. Add salt and gradually stir in the oats. Let boil for two minutes, 
then put it into the boiler and cook for one hour. Strain, reheat, and add 
cream or milk if desired. 



HOME NURSING 333 

Arrow-root Gruel 

Add y2 tsp. of sugar and a tiny pinch of salt to % c. of water, and 
heat. Rub % tbsp. of arrow-root in 14 c. of cold water and add it to the 
hot water. Boil for twenty minutes, stirring constantly ; then add it to i/^ c. 
scalded milk; put in a double boiler and heat very hot; strain and serve 
while hot. 

Egg Albumin 

(See Diet of the Child) 

Orange Eggnog 

Separate one fresh egg and beat the white until stiff, and the yolk until 
frothy. Strain the juice from one m-edium-sized fresh orange through 
cheesecloth. Add it to the yolk, then fold in the white. Serve in a tall 
glass. If sugar is allowed add it to the yolk. 

White of Egg With Cream 

To the white of one fresh egg beaten very stiff add a tablespoonful of 
fresh cream. Beat until mixed, then fold in a tablespoonful of sugar and a 
few drops of some pleasing flavoring. 

Egg With Broth 

Beat one egg, white and yolk together, until well mixed. Add a pinch of 
salt and beat into a cup of very hot broth. Strain and serve in a hot cup. 

Beef Juice 

(See Diet of the Child) 

Chicken Broth 

Clean a chicken and cut it into small pieces as for frying. Remove the 
skin and fat and place in a smooth enameled or aluminum kettle. Cover 
with cold water, allowing one and one-half quarts for a three-pound chicken. 
Let it stand in a cool place for one hour. Then heat very gradually to the 
boiling point and add two tablespoonfuls of rice. Reduce the heat and keep 
hot until the meat is tender. If the broth is allowed to boil, the meat 
becomes hard and the juice is not extracted. If boiled after the juice is 
extracted the albumin is coagulated and rendered indigestible. When the 
flesh is tender remove it (it may be utilized in the family diet, as salad or 
creamed dishes) and the bones, and strain the broth through a fine sieve, 
rubbing the rice through. Season with salt and serve hot. It may be 
reheated in a double boiler at serving time. 



334 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

What can you say of the importance of feeding in disease? Why is 
the method of food preparation so important? How does the appearance of 
food affect a patient's digestion? How may the appetite be stimulated? 
What articles of diet are prohibited for most invalids? Why is a bland 
diet used for cases of diarrhoea? Would you give such patients hot or 
cold foods? Why is strong tea objectionable for a constipated patient? Tell 
how a patient suffering from nervous indigestion should be fed? 



PAET FOUR 
LAUNDERING 



CHAPTER I 

Why Clotnes Are Washed. Clothes are washed to remove 
the dirt. Dirt is of many kinds and may contain the germs 
of disease. For this reason all clothing worn next to the body, 
and all table, bed, and kitchen linen must be boiled. Colored 
outer garments may be washed without boiling. Soap is used 
to soften the grease, but it is also an antiseptic. Sunshine is a 
great disinfectant and all white clothes should be dried in it. 
Sunshine also bleaches. Knit and crepe underwear and crepe 
gowns when worn without having been ironed are believed to 
be more beneficial, on account of the layer of sun dried air 
they bring next to the skin. 

The Home Laundry. If possible a separate room should be 
kept for laundering ; then all utensils needed may have a special 
place and no time or labor need be wasted in trying to find 
them. In many homes the laundress wastes much time looking 
for her utensils, carrying wood for the fire, and putting up 
clotheslines. In a warm climate a laundry room in the yard 
is better than one in the house. 

The Laundry Equipment. If possible every laundry should 
have running water and stationary tubs; too much energy is 
wasted in carrying water and lifting tubs. If the conveniences 
named are not available, a barrel with a faucet should be filled 
and placed on a platform for the use of the laundress, or a gar- 
den hose may be used for taking water from a tank or hydrant at 

335 



336 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



some distance. If movable tubs are used choose light zinc ones. 
For bluing use a white enameled tub. The bench for the tubs 
should be firm and solid and of a height to suit the laundress. 
A good wringer saves both clothing and strength. The wash 
board should be of metal or glass, with only a few corrugations. 
One with a very rough surface causes the clothes to wear out. 
The wash boiler should be heated over a fire that brings it low 
enough for the laundress to take out the clothes without reaching 
too high. A large pot over a gas flame is very good. 

The ironing board should 
be covered with a thick soft 
pad put on very smoothly. 
Keep the ironing sheet clean. 
Use nickle-faced irons in two 
weights, four and six pounds. 
An electric iron saves time 
and labor. If the surface of 
the irons is lightly greased 
with vaseline, when not in 
use, they will not rust. Have 
a good wire clothesline and 
wipe it carefully before hang- 
ing the clothes. Support the 
line with a stout pole ; lower the pole when hanging the clothes, 
so as to avoid reaching up. Use plain wooden clothespins. Wear 
an apron with a pocket and never drop the pins on the ground; 
wash the pins if they are dirty. 

Laundry Supplies. Keep all needed supplies on a conve- 
nient shelf. A mild laundry soap will be needed for ordinary 
washing, and some of the fine white soaps for flannels, delicate 
colored goods, and silks. Use a good bluing and provide the 
common laundry starch, and a package of prepared starch for 
cold starching. If the water is hard keep such chemicals as may 
be needed to soften it. 

Hard or Soft Water. (Review page 72.) Water that con- 
tains certain forms of lime may be somewhat softened by boiling. 




A CONVENIENT TYPE OP IRONING 
BOARD. 



LAUNDERING 337 

Water containing gypsum can be softened only by alkalies. To 
soften such water for coarse goods use sal soda — one tablespoon- 
ful to one gallon of water. First dissolve the soda in a little hot 
water, then add to the water in the boiler, and boil and skim. 
Some of the washing powders may be used in the same way. For 
finer articles soften the water with borax — one teaspoonful of 
borax to one gallon of water — and proceed as above. 

The Care of Soiled Clothes. See that all soiled clothing is 
dry before putting it into the laundry basket; if left damp it 
may mildew. Remove stains while fresh if possible. (See 
Removing Stains, page 343.) Do not keep soiled clothing in 
bedrooms or in the kitchen. Patch or darn all clothing except 
stockings before washing. If clothing is sent out to be laun- 
dered make a careful list of articles. 

Sorting the Clothes. Sort the clothes and arrange them in 
neat piles. Remove stains, if not previously done. Make the 
following piles : handkerchiefs, body or bed linen, dish 
towels, table linen, white starched goods, colored ginghams, cali- 
coes, colored lawns or fine goods, flannels, silk hose, cotton hose, 
curtains (never soak curtains with other articles). Wash dish 
towels in a separate water, soak handkerchiefs alone before 
washing, soak white starched goods by themselves; all other 
white cottons may be soaked together. Do not soak colored 
goods, hosiery, or flannels. In washing follow the directions given 
below. 

To Wash Dish Towels. Dish towels contain grease, hence 
soaking them in cold water does little good unless they are stiff 
with flour or starch. Put the towels in hot soap suds for fifteen 
minutes; then rub on the board, using more soap if necessary. 
Do not use too much force when rubbing, or holes will be worn 
in the fabric. If the towels are very dirty wash through a 
second hot soapy water; then soap well and put into a kettle 
where they will be well covered with hot soapsuds ; boil for half 
an hour, punching them often with a rounded stick — an old 
broom handle is good. Do not let the water stop boiling or the 
clothes will be streaked. Take from the boiling water and drop 



338 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

into a tub of tepid water stirring them about imuiediately to 
prevent streaks; wash through this water, rinse well, blue, and 
dry in the sun. Do not iron, but fold and keep in a dry place 
away from the dust. Some laundresses add one-half table- 
spoonful of kerosene oil to each gallon of soapsuds in which the 
towels are boiled. 

The Bluing Water. White clothes are blued to give the 
appearance of whiteness. They become yellow from careless 
washing. Dark soaps or impure water and the bluing cover up 
stains. Clothes must be well rinsed before being blued, as the 
soap left in them will unite with certain chemicals in the bluing 
and cause the clothes to become stained or streaked. Ultramarine 
blue, a chemical substance, is sold in powders, balls, or cakes. 
Aniline blue, a dye, is used chiefly in laundries and is satisfactory 
only where the clothes are very thoroughly rinsed. It gives a 
pearly tint to fabrics. Prussian blue, which is a salt of iron, 
if heated with an alkali such as soap or washing powder, changes 
to another salt of iron which forms rust spots. This sometimes 
happens when clothes not thoroughly rinsed are blued in it. 

I 

Experiment I. Add to a test tube half full of the diluted bluing a 

quarter of a teaspoonful of a strong solution of sal soda. Bring to the boil- 
ing point. If it changes to a yellow or reddish brown it contains salts of 
iron. 

Measure the water and put it into a tub or pail. Measure 
some bluing in a cup or spoon and pour in enough to color the 
water slightly ; stir it well with your hand. When it looks blue 
enough, dip a piece of white cloth into it. Wring and see if the 
color is what is desired. If it is, shake out the garment and dip ; 
then wring carefully; if not blue enough add more bluing or 
water as needed. 

Note the brand of bluing and the amount of water and bluing used. 
How much bluing of this brand will be needed for a given quantity of 
water? Each brand of bluing varies in the amount needed. Wring blued 
clothes very thoroughly. 



LAUNDERING! 339 

Washing the Cooking Apron. The apron, having been 
starched, must be soaked in cold water for an hour to remove 
the old starch, then washed and blued as directed for dish 
towels. Starch while w^et, and hang on the line by the lower hem. 
Starching Clothes. (Review Starch.) Clothes are starched 
to give a gloss to the surface and to make them slightly stiff. 
Do not starch underwear, handkerchiefs, or hosiery. A thin 
starch may be used for corset covers and slips and for the 
flounces of underskirts and for dresses. A thick starch is used 
for shirt bosoms, collars, and cuffs. Borax is added to starch 
to thin it so that it w^ill enter the fibers of the cloth. Lard or 
paraffin is added to starch so that the garment can be ironed 
more smoothly. If paraffin is added to starch it must be used 
while warm. Otherwise it may form tiny lumps and cause 
greasy spots upon the garments when they are ironed. 

Dip the garment in the starch, rubbing it well between the 
hands, so that the starch will penetrate. "Wring well, then shake 
out and dry in the sun. 

Starch. Rub two and one-half tablespoonfuls of laundry 
starch to a paste with one-fourth cup of cold water. Add slowly 
two cups of boiling water, stirrin(^ all the time. Continue stir- 
ring and boil for five minutes. Turn into a basin or deep pan. 
Add one cup of cold water and stir well. Add bluing if desired. 
If borax is used, add one-half teaspoonful of borax to the 
quantity of starch given above; dissolve it with a little hot 
water and boil with the starch; if paraffin or lard is used, add 
one-fourth teaspoonful of lard or one-fourth teaspoonful of 
shredded paraffin (that from a candle is satisfactory) to the 
starch just as it boils. 

To Dampen Clothes for Ironing. Clothes are dampened or 
sprinkled so that they may be ironed very smooth. Shake the 
clothes as they are taken from the line and put them in a dry 
place where no dirt can reach them. Cover the ironing table with 
a sheet; lay the garment to be sprinkled on the table. Have a 
bowl of lukewarm water ready and be sure that the hands are 
clean. Dip the right hand into the w^ater, taking up a little 



340 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

of it and shaking it over the clothes so that a fine spray is made. 
Do this until the whole surface is damp, but not wet ; then fold 
the piece of clothing right side in and roll it up tightly. Wrap 
in a towel and let stand for several hours or over night. 
When sprinkling a number of pieces, line a basket with a folded 
sheet and pack the pieces in it firmly ; then cover closely. Do not 
sprinkle colored goods until they are ready to be ironed. Do not 
let sprinkled clothes stand longer than twelve hours in summer, 
as they may mildew. 

Ironing. Have the irons hot ; test by rubbing on a pad to 
see if they are clean and smooth ; if they are not, rub well on sand 
or salt, then on a paraffin cloth, and finally on a clean cloth. 
Never put an iron to heat where it will become smoked. Use a 
heavy iron for table linen and a lighter and more pointed one 
for garments with gathers. Have the iron very hot for white 
goods, but cooler for colored, as the color will be injured by a 
hot iron. Iron calicoes on the wrong side and white goods on the 
right. Iron with the thread of the goods. If a crease is acci- 
dentally made wipe with a damp cloth and iron again. 

Ironing the Cooking Apron. Iron the dampened apron with 
a hot iron on the right side, the bib first ; then the skirt a width 
at a time, beginning with the hem. Use long quick strokes. 
Work quickly in the gathers. Press the facings, tabs, and bands 
on the wrong side as well as the right. The apron must be 
smooth and perfectly dry when finished. Hang it on the rack 
for a while to air and dry perfectly ; then fold to suit the space 
in which it is to be kept. Fold all buttons and tapes in, making 
the piece as neat as possible. 

Table Linen. Remove the stains and soak in weak soapsuds, 
then wring from the suds and wash as directed above. Use a 
very thin starch, if any. Fasten on the line by hanging one hem 
about four inches over the line and pinning it in several places. 
Begin at the selvage; then carry the hem at the other end over 
the first, pinning it in the same manner so as to make a sort of 
bag. Take from the line as soon as dry, as the cloth, being heavy, 
will stretch if blown about by the wind. Iron table linen while 



LAUNDERING 34I 

still damp, or sprinkle very thoroughly and let stand for several 
hours, then iron with a hot iron. Pull the cloth straight and 
fold down the center, right side out, selvages together, ends 
even, threads straight. Lay lengthwise on the board, with 
fold to the left; iron one side until partly dry; then turn 
the cloth over, still folded, and iron the other half; repeat 
until it is smooth and dry; roll on a pasteboard tube, or fold 
and put away. Do not press across folds. Fold napkins length- 
wise and put selvages together. Pull smooth, open, and iron, 
first on right side, then on the other. Fold in center and press 
crease in. Tray cloths and centerpieces should have the hem 
and corners true. Roll or leave flat ; do not fold. 

The Body Linens. Wash the linen as directed for dish 
towels. Do not starch garments worn next to the body. Do not 
iron crepe or knitted underwear. Hang crepe gowns and 
dresses on coat hangers to keep the shape. Iron trimming on 
underwear first, then bands and sleeves. Iron combination suits 
and night gowns in the same manner, doing the upper part first. 

Handkerchiefs should be very damp when ironed. Fold in 
half and pull the hems even ; then unfold and iron on both sides. 
Fold into shape but do not crease with the iron. 

Hosiery. Wash silk and cotton hose apart from other cloth- 
ing, as the lint will stick to them. The same water may be used 
for both if the silk is washed first. Use a moderately warm water 
and a mild white soap. Use lukewarm water for white and light 
colored silk hose. Never boil or soak hose. Dry quickly in the 
shade, pinning them on the line in shape. Never hang them so 
that they will be whipped about in the wind. Iron on the wrong 
side with a barely warm iron, then fold. 

The Shirt Waist. Wash, starch, and sprinkle a white shirt 
waist as directed for the cooking apron. When ready to iron, 
smooth well into shape. Then iron the neck band, cuffs, waist 
band, and pleats (first on the right side a little, then on the 
wrong) ; then iron the front, then the back, then the sleeves, 
beginning on the seam side, 



342 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

To Iron a Skirt. Sprinkle as directed; slip the skirt over 
the ironing board, having the floor beneath covered with a clean 
paper. Iron the hem of one width or gore until dry. Then iron 
the upper part, being careful of the gathers or tucks at the 
waist. Iron the next width in the same way; then the seam 
between. When finished take the skirt off the board and press 
the waist band on the wrong side if needed. Iron petticoats in 
the same way, doing the flounce first. 

Washing Flannels. Shake the flannels and brush well. 
Make a suds of soft lukewarm water and a good white soap. 
"Wash the flannel by squeezing and kneading between the hands 
(do not use a board). Then squeeze well and wash through 
another suds of the same temperature. Rinse through two soft 
lukewarm waters. Wring in a wringer or squeeze as dry as 
possible with the hands and dry quickly in the sunshine or in a 
moderately warm room. If hung out in a freezing temperature 
they will be stiff, or if heated too much while drying they will 
shrink. Success in washing flannels depends upon having all the 
water of the same lukewarm temperature, keeping the fibers free 
from twist, and drying quickly. Wash the cleanest flannels first 
and the colored ones after the white ones. 

Cleaning Silk. Washable silks may be washed in luke- 
warm soapsuds, made of soft water and a mild white soap. 
Proceed as for flannels and iron on the wrong side with an iron 
that is warm, not hot, while still slightly damp. Pongee should 
be thoroughly dry. A hot iron makes silk shrink. Do not 
sprinkle silk as it may show spots. 

Using Gasoline and Alcohol. Never use gasoline indoors, 
or ivhere there is a fire. Keep gasoline away from the house. 
Brush the garments well and see where the most soiled portions 
are. Then cover with gasoline in a small tub. Turn another tub 
over it and let stand for twenty minutes. Then punch and 
knead to loosen the dirt. Squeeze out the gasoline and change 
to a fresh vessel of gasoline. Rinse and see if the gasoline comes 
out clear ; if not use more gasoline. When clean hang on a coat 
hanger (if a large garment) to dry. Air for two days before 



LAUNDEEING 343 

pressing. If a garment is very soiled wash in gasoline with 
naphtha soap, just as with soap and water ; naphtha soap is not 
desirable for delicate colors, however, as it dulls them. It is best 
to use a large quantity of gasoline ; then pour it into jugs, let it 
settle, and keep tbe clear part for later use. 

Denatured alcohol is used like gasoline; it, too, is inflam- 
mable and should not he used near the fire. 

BEHOVING STAINS FROM WASHABLE GOODS 

Fruit, Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate Stains. These may all be removed 
from table linen by the use of hot water. Stretch the stained part over a 
bowl and pour boiling water over it. Rub between the hands and repeat 
the process if the stain does not disappear. 

Grass Stains. These stains may be removed by moistening the soiled 
spot with chloroform; then washing in soapsuds; or by moistening and 
washing with alcohol. 

Blood Stains. Blood stains should be washed out immediately in cold 
water. If they are old soak them in tepid soapsuds, then wash. 

Perspiration. Wash out perspiration while still damp. If very yellow 
soak in soapsuds. Wash and lay on the grass in the sun and dew for several 
days. In colored garments perspiration usually takes out the color. 

Fly Paper. Soak fly paper stains in kerosene oil, then wash in soapsuds. 

Vaseline. Soak vaseline spots in kerosene oil before washing. 

Tar or Machine Oil. Rub tar or machine oil well with lard and let 
stand over night ; then wash. 

Iron Bust. Moisten iron rust with lemon juice and salt and put garment 
in the sunshine; repeat after a short time and rub well. If stains are bad 
use two parts water and one part hydrochloric acid; wash out thoroughly. 

Scorched Stains. Wipe scorched stains with a damp cloth and put in 
the sun; repeat if necessary. 

Ink. Soak ink stains in sour milk, then wash. 

Paint. Wash paint in warm soapsuds; if very hard soften with tur- 
pentine. 

BLEACHING : SETTING AND BRIGHTENING COLORS. 

Bleaching. Clothing that has become yellow may be bleached by the 
following harmless bleach: Dissolve 1 tbsp. of cream of tartar in three 
qts. of boiling water. After washing and rinsing carefully soak the articles 
to be bleached for twelve hours in the solution^ then rinse, blue, and dr^ 



344 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Javelle water is a stronger bleach. To make it, dissolve 4 oz. of chloride 
of lime in 1 qt. of cold water and 1 lb. of sal soda in 1 qt. of boiling 
water, then mix the two. Let stand for four hours, then drain the clear 
water into another bottle. Use 1 tbsp. of the solution to 1 gal, of water 
and heat the article to be bleached in it for thirty minutes, keeping the 
temperature below 100° F. Einse very thoroughly and dry. 

To Set Colors. To set very delicate colors, lavender, for instance, use 
one ounce of sugar of lead in one gallon of cold water and soak for three 
hours. Then rinse and dry in the shade. 

Use a salt solution for blacks, pinks, and reds, soaking separately; one- 
half cup of salt to one gallon of cold water. Proceed as above, soaking 
for half an hour. 

To Brighten Colors. Dip a faded blue in bluing water each time after 
washing, or rinse in a weak alum water, and dry in the shade. 

For pink, use red ink, making the water of the desired color, as directed 
for bluing. Mix thoroughly and wring the garment out immediately. Do 
not use too much ink as the garment will then be streaked. 
For browns or tans, use water, colored with tea or coffee. 

Putting Away the Clothes. As soon as the clothing is thor- 
oughly dry it should be carefully put away as a protection from 
dust and to prevent starched clothing from losing its stiffness. 
Keep all clothing near where it is to be used. In putting it 
away lay the freshly laundered underneath the piles already 
on hand, so that all garments may be used in a regular order. 

Winter Clothing. Furs and woolen garments should be 
cleansed thoroughly, brushed with a stiff brush, particularly 
along the inside of seams and under folds and collars, then ex- 
posed to the hot sun to destroy the eggs of moths, and finally 
packed in cloth or paper tightly sewed or sealed and put away 
in moth proof chests. 

Moth balls and oil of cedar do not destroy the eggs or larvae 
of moths, and if the clothing is not carefully cleaned the eggs 
may hatch and eat the garment even when it is packed in moth 
balls. The adult moth is kept away by strong odors, but if the 
garment is cleansed and packed as it should be no moths can 
enter. Such strong odors are hard to remove and are most 
unpleasant. A cedar chest or closet is supposed to be a moth 
protection for elotlies that have been thoroughly cleaned. 



LAUNDEEING 345 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

Why are clothes washed? Where are yours washed? Are the conditions 
sanitary? Is the washing done by people affected with tuberculosis, skin, 
or other contagious diseases? If done in the home of the laundress what 
conveniences has she for caring for the clothes? Does she put them in her 
bedroom 1 

Has your laundress any labor saving machinery or equipment? Could 
she use a power washing machine? Has she stationary tubs, running water, 
benches of the proper height, or electric or gas irons? What could be done 
to save her strength? Investigate the conditions of your laundress' home 
if your washing is done in it. Investigate also the conditions of the public 
laundries, considering carefully the sanitary conditions and the welfare 
of the workers. Compare the hygienic conditions and cost of laundering 
done in the public laundry, and at home, and laundering carried home by 
the laundress. Consider the cost of fuel, soap, and other supplies, also 
the ''wear and tear" upon clothing washed under these varying conditions. 

How could you lessen your laundry bill without sacrificing cleanliness? 
What clothes could be left unironed? How does elaborate decoration or 
the quality of the fabric affect the cost of laundering? How could labor 
be saved on table linen? 

What clothing should be boiled? Can colored clothes be boiled without 
being faded? What is the value of sunlight? Can colored clothing be 
dried in the sunlight? Why is sun dried clothing considered beneficial to 
health? Why is soap used? Why are clothes hung on a rack after being 
ironed ? 

What do you think of the conveniences in the average home laundry? 
Why are benches, boards, and lines of the proper height so important? 
Make a list of a complete and moderately expensive laundry equipment. 

Compare cost of charcoal, coal, wood, gas, gasoline, and electricity 
for ironing; consider carefully time and labor involved as well as cost. 
What fuels are used for heating irons in your locality? 

Is your water soft or hard? Could you get soft water? What is the 
advantage in its use? 

Do you use washing powders? Why? Which is cheaper, to have cloth- 
ing replaced because weakened by excess of powder, or to use time and 
strength in laundering and repairing old clothes? 

Make a list of the laundry supplies you need. What brands of soap, 
starch, and bluing are to be recommended? Why are clothes punched while 
boiling? Why are clothes blued? Why is thorough rinsing needed first? 

Why should soiled clothing be dried before being put away? 



346 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Make a brief outline of important points in washing the family clothing, 
listing each class of clothing separately. Tell how to remove stains that 
may be found on the soiled articles. Make a laundry list for your family. 
Write directions for putting the weekly laundry away; for care of winter 
clothing. 



APPENDIX 

SUPPLEMENTARY RECIPES 



BEEADS 

Yorkshire Pudding 

Use the popover recipe (p. 200). Beat the eggs thoroughly with the dover 
egg beater and add them to the batter. Grease a hot baking pan with 
fat from a roast and put in the mixture, having it one-half an inch deep. 
Bake fo: twenty minutes in a hot oven. When well risen brush the top 
with gome of the fat from the roast. Serve hot, cut in squares as an 
accompaniment to roast beef. The pudding may be baked in muffin pans. 

Hot Water Com Bread (Class Recipe Vk) 
1 qt. sifted cornmeal 1 tbsp. salt 

Use enough rapidly boiling water to make a dough that will not 
spread when shaped with a spoon. 

Use fresh, sweet meal. Sift the meal and the salt, then pour on the 
boiling w^ater very quickly. Stir briskly to prevent lumping. The 
amount of water depends on the kind of meal. The dough should be like 
ver;; thick mush. When it is perfectly smooth, dip a tablespoon in cold 
water and take up a spoonful of dough and turn into a baking pan that 
has been lightly sprinkled with meal. The cakes may be shaped in small 
pones with the hands. Put immediately into a very hot oven and cook for 
ten minutes where the bottom will be very hot; then put where the top will 
brown quickly. The secret in baking this bread lies in having a very hot oven 
and browning the top and bottom quickly. Cook for thirty or forty minutes. 
What is the leavening agent in this bread? 

Waffles 

1% c. flour 3 tsp. baking powder 

% tsp. salt 1 e. milk 

2 eggs 1 tbsp. melted butter 

Sour milk and one-half teaspoonful of soda maj be substituted for sweet 
milk and baking powder, 

347 



348 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



Mix and sift the dry ingredients. Beat the egg yolks well. Add them 
to the milk. Then add the egg mixture to the flour. Add the butter. 
Then fold in the stiffly beaten whites. Put one tablespoonful of batter 
into each square of the hot well greased waffle iron, near the center. Close 
the iron and turn almost immediately. Serve hot. 

The waffle iron must fit the range, and be very clean. Heat it on one 
side; then turn and heat the other. When very hot grease well with a 
pastry brush dipped in melted fat, or use a bit of cheesecloth on a fork 

Sour Milk Corn Bread (Class Eecipe Vs) 
(See Experiment IV, page 196) 

3 c. cornmeal 1% tsp. soda 

1 tsp. salt 3 c. thick sour milk 

1 egg 1 tbsp. lard or butter 

Proceed as for light muffins. Beat the milk well before adding it to 
the meal. Cook in a greased baking pan, having the batter three-fourths 
of an inch deep. Bake for twenty-five minutes. 

Dumplings for Meat Stew (Class Eecipe 1/4) 

2 c. flour 2 tsp. baking powder 
% tsp. salt milk or water enough to 

make a drop batter 

Mix and sift the dry ingredients. Add the liquid. Mix and drop 
immediately by the teaspoonful into the boiling stew. Cover the kettle 
and boil for twelve minutes. 

Emergency Biscuit 

Make the dough a little softer than for baking powder biscuit (See 
page 205) by adding more liquid. Drop the dough by the spoonful on to a 
lightly greased pan. Bake as directed. 

Soda Biscuit (Class Recipe 1/4) 

(See Experiment IV, page 196) 

1 qt. flour 1 tsp. soda 

1 tsp. salt 1 tsp. baking powder 

1% e. sour milk 4 tbsp. shortening 

Proceed as for baking powder biscuit. Compare with baking powder 
biscuit. 



SUPPLEMENTARY RECIPES 349 

Dainty Biscuit 

2 c. pastry flour % tsp. salt 

4 tsp. baking powder % c. rich thick cream 

Sift the dry ingredients together several times; then mix as directed for 
baking powder biscuit. (See page 205.) Roll into a sheet one-fourth of an 
inch thick. Cut in rounds an inch in diameter. Bake in a quick oven until 
a golden brown. Serve unbuttered with a salad course. 

Whole Wheat Biscuit 

2 c. whole wheat flour % c. white flour 

3 tsp. baking powder % tsp. salt 

2 tbsp. lard or butter % to 1 c. milk or water 

Proceed as for baking powder biscuit. ( See page 205.) 

Beaten Biscuit 

2 c. flour 1 tsp. salt 

2 tbsp. shortening i/4 to % c. liquid 

These biscuit are made light by steam and by the expansion of the 
air beaten in. 

Proceed as for biscuit. Turn the mixture on a board and beat with 
a rolling-pin. When one-eighth of an inch thick fold the dough once 
and quickly pat the edges together to retain the air. Continue beating 
and folding for one-half hour. Beat to three-fourths inch thickness, cut 
with a small biscuit cutter, prick with a fork, and bake in a quick oven 
for twenty minutes. What is the leavening agent in these biscuits? 

Bread Sticks 

Proceed as for Parker House rolls, using the sponge method. When 
ready to mold roll a small piece of dough under the hand until it is 
shaped like a lead pencil. Lay it in a greased bread stick pan, or on a 
greased baking sheet. Brush with melted butter. If put in the pan let 
it double in bulk but not rise above the edges of the pan. Bake in a 
quick oven for ten or fifteen minutes. 

Hot Cross Buns 

flour % c. sugar 

1 tsp. salt 1% tsp. cinnamon 

% c. raisins 1 cake compressed yeast 

M: c. butter % e. lukewarm water 

1 pt. scalded milk 2 eggs 



350 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

In making these buns the same care is needed as in making other 
yeast mixtures containing much sugar. The rising process must be 
quickly completed or the bread will sour. 

Proceed as for rolls, adding the well-beaten eggs after the yeast is 
beaten for five minutes. Add the raisins and flour enough to make a soft 
dough that can be rolled. When light, knead and roll to an inch in 
thickness. Cut with a large biscuit cutter and place one inch apart on 
a baking sheet. When light brush with the yolk of an egg beaten with 
a half teaspoonful of water. Bake in a moderately hot oven for twenty- 
five or thirty minutes. When cold form a cross on top with ornamental 
frosting, using a pastry bag and tube. 



Swedish Tea Bread 

flour % c. sugar 

Ys tsp. salt % cake compressed yeast 

% tsp. almond extract 1 egg 

11/4 c. scalded milk 4 tbsp. melted butter 

Make a sponge of the yeast cake, one-fourth cup of milk, and one-half 
cup of flour. When light add remaining milk and two and one-fourth 
cups of flour. Let rise again and add the remaining ingredients and 
about three-fourths cup of flour. Knead well and let rise. When light 
knead again and divide into three parts and roll under the hand into 
strips. Braid the strips together and lay in a circle on a greased baking 
sheet. Let rise and then brush the top with the yolk of an egg to which 
has been added one-half teaspoonful of cold water. Sprinkle with 
chopped almonds and bake in a moderately hot oven. 



Coffee Cake 

3 c. flour (about) % cake compressed yeast 
1 tsp. salt (or % cake dry yeast) 

1 e. scalded milk i/4 c. shortening 

14 c. lukewarm water 1 egg 
Yi c. sugar 

Mix as for Parker House rolls (see p. 217), making the dough almost stiff 
enough to knead. Add the egg with the yeast, turn on a board, and cut 
through and through. Eeturn to the bowl and let rise well — then cut again 
and turn into a well greased tin about 5x10 inches. Put in a warm 
place and when nearly double in bulk cover with the paste given below 
and bake in a moderately hot oven for half an hour. 



SUPPLEMENTARY RECIPES 351 

Paste for Coffee Cake 

14 c. sugar 1 tsp. cinnamon 

1 doz. blanched almonds ^ c. butter 

Rub the sugar, cinnamon, and butter together. Set in a warm place 
and stir until melted. Add the finely chopped almonds and spread over 
the cake, being careful to touch it lightly, so that it will not fall. .If too 
much paste is put in one place it will break through the cake. 

Milk Toast 

Butter slices of crisp toast and pour over them scalded milk to which a 
pinch of salt has been added. Serve immediately. A thin white sauce may 
be substituted for the milk. 

BUTTER (CHURNING) 

(If yon live in a district where butter making is practiced, study the 
ripening of cream, working of butter, etc. See Farmers' Bulletin No. 241, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 

Cream for churning must be brought to the proper temperature, about 
58° F. (varying witli the time of year, the food of the cows, and other 
conditions) ; test with a dairy thermometer. If the cream has to be cooled 
several degrees it should be kept at the churning temperature for three 
or four hours, as fats cool very slowly. If ice is not available for cooling 
the cream use the coldest water to be had and churn in the coolest part of 
the day. In winter the cream must be warmed, by keeping it in a warm 
place or by placing the jar containing it in warm, but not hot, water. 

Have the churn scalded and well cooled. The time required for 
churning depends largely on the temperature and the kind of churn; 
the average time is from thirty to thirty-five minutes. If churning is 
done too rapidly, the butter will be oily and fluffy, while if the rate of 
churning is too slow a great deal of time is consumed. When the butter 
is ready wash and salt in a wooden bowl, if a dash churn is used. In a 
barrel churn, drain off the buttermilk and wash the butter in the churn, 
using plenty of clean cold water. Then drain off the water and add salt 
(the usual proportion is one ounce of salt to a pound of butter). Give 
the churn a few turns, remove butter to tray, and work with a wooden 
paddle to mix in the salt. "When fairly well mixed, let stand twenty 
minutes or half an hour, and then finish the working. Taste the butter 
while working and add more calt if needed, or if too much has 
been used wash a little out. Much depends on the way in which 
butter is worked. A bowl and paddle are not as satisfactory as a table 



352 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

and roller, but these are not available for most housekeepers. If butter 
has a mottled appearance the salt has not been thoroughly mixed with it. 
It may be improved by reworking. If butter shows curdy specks the 
fault lies in the cream; it may be improved by careful washing while the 
butter is still granular. 

Care of the Churn. As soon as the churning is finished, rinse the 
churn thoroughly with clean cold water. Fill partly with boiling water and 
put on the lid, fastening it loosely so that the steam may escape. Turn the 
churn a few times. Empty, and repeat the scalding process. Invert for 
a few moments to drain, then turn the opening up and let dry. Clean a 
dash churn, also wooden paddles and bowls in the same way. Scald 
occasionally with lime water. Churns and other wooden utensils are scalded 
immediately before using to prevent substances from sticking. 

Buttermilk. If heavy cream is churned there will be very little 
buttermilk; but if an equal quantity of good clabber is poured into the 
churn and the whole churned for about ten minutes, very good buttermilk 
may be made. For a richer buttermilk add % c. cream for each quart. 

CAKES 
Yellow Cake 

Use the cup cake recipe (p. 245), substituting eight yolks for the whole 
egg and adding one-half cup flour as the yolks are rich in fat. 

Cream the butter with one and one-half cups of sugar. Beat the 
yolks with a dover egg beater until thick and lemon colored. Add the 
half cup of sugar, and beat well. (When egg yolks are added directly 
to the butter and sugar the cake may be of an uneven color.) Mix 
egg and butter mixtures. Add the other ingredients as in cup cake. 
Bake in a loaf or in a sheet; a sheet will require less time for baking. 
Do not have the oven hot or the texture will be spoiled. Frost with 
ornamental frosting (p. 240), or if in a sheet it may be cut with a heart- 
shaped cutter and dipped in melted fondant. 

For a yellow and white course this cake cut in squares after being 
frosted gives a pleasing contrast of white frosting and yellow cake. 

White Loaf Cake 

Use the cup cake recipe, substituting eight whites for the whole 
eggs, and flavor with one-third teaspoonful of vanilla and two-thirds tea- 
spoonful of almond extract. Add one-half cup of chopped and floured 
raisins if desired before folding in the whites. A white cake requires 
a slightly cooler oven than other butter cakes. Bake in a loaf or in 
two layers. Frost with chocolate frosting. 



SUPPLEMENTARY RECIPES 353 

A Tender Loaf Cake 

214 c. flour 14 c. sweet milk 

2 e. sugar 2 tsp. baking powder 

1 tsp. cinnamon 1 c. chopped pecans 

^ or i/> c. cocoa or grated choeo- 14 tsp, mace 

late 1 c. fresh hoiled and mashed potato 

1 c. butter 4 eggs 

Proceed as for cup cake. Add the warm mashed potato (do not use 
cold potato or the cake will not be smooth). To the butter and sugar 
add pecans before the whites of eggs are folded in. Bake for one hour 
as directed for loaf cakes with butter. Compare proportions of prin- 
cipal ingredients, including potato, with that of cup cake. Frost if desired. 

Fruit Cake 

Fruit cake is an old-time delicacy handed down from England. It is 
very rich and is difficult to digest when eaten, as it usually is, in the holiday 
season when we have feasted more than is good for us. It should be made 
at least a month before it is to be used. 

^{> lb. flour % lb. sugar 

% lb. butter % lb. currants 

2% lbs. raisins % lb. citron 

^2 lb. pecans i/i lb. almonds 

% tbsp. mace 1 tbsp. cinnamon 

1/4 tsp. cloves 1 grated nutmeg 

6 eggs % c. grape juice 

Wash and dry the currants on a cloth and then in a very moderate 
oven. Seed and chop the raisins. Slice the citron thin and cut in small 
pieces. Chop the nuts after blanching the almonds (see Fats). Flour 
the fruit well with a few tablespoonfuls of the flour. Cream the butter 
and sugar, add the well beaten yolks of the eggs, the flour sifted with 
the spices, the fruit juice, and the whites of eggs beaten stiff. Then work 
in the fruit and nuts. Bake in a deep pan. Line the pan with hea\"v 
writing paper greased with lard. Dredge it with flour, invert, and rap 
sharply. Put the cake in and smooth well, leaving; a depression in the 
center. Bake in a very slow oven for three hours. Test by pressing 
with the finger; if it is firm to the touch it is done. In most cities one 
can send the cake to the bakery and have it baked for a small sum; this 
is a saving of time and fuel. Why does fruit cake burn easily? 



354 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



A Cheap Fruit Cake 



Part 1. 



% c. lard 

% tsp. cloves 

2 c. brown sugar 

1 tsp. ginger 

2 c. raisins 



Part 2. 



tsp. soda 



I c. chopped nuts 
14 c. warm water 



1 tsp. cinnamon 

2 c. water 
1 tsp. salt 

% nutmeg grated 



4 c. flour 

2 tsp. baking powder 



Put the ingredients of Part 1 in a smooth saucepan, bring to the 
boiling point, and cook gently for twenty minutes. Cool. Add the soda 
which has been dissolved in the hot water, then the flour, which has the 
baking powder sifted in it. Add the chopped nuts. The mixture should 
be very stiff when finished. Bake in a tube pan, in a moderate oven 
for an hour and a half, or in a tireless cooker for the same length of 
time, heating the radiators as for biscuit. 

Angel Cake 

(Eeview Egg Cutting and Folding, page 131) 



1 c. flour 
-]V tsp. salt 

1% 



11/4 c. sugar 

1 tsp. cream tartar 



c. egg whites 



Prepare the flour and sugar as for sponge cake. Beat the eggs in a 
large bowl until slij^htly frothy; then sift in cream of tartar and salt. 
(The cream of tartar toughens the albumin of the egg so that the walls 
of the air cells are firmer and the cake rises better.) Beat until the 
bowl can be inverted without turning out the egg, then fold in the sugar 
very carefully. Fold in the flour as directed for sponge cake, turn into 
a tube pan (ungreased if a special pan is kept for angel cake), and bake 
as directed above. Angel cake requires a little less time and a slightly 
lower temperature than sponge cake. Angel and sponge cakes are better 
if served the day they are made. 



Angel Cakelets 

Bake angel cake in individual tins for thirty minutes, 
ornamental frosting and serve fresh. 



Frost with 



SUPPLEMENTARY RECIPES 355 

Meringues 

1/1 tsp. salt % c. powdered sugar rolled 

3 egg whites and sifted 

Add the salt to eggs. Beat until foamy; then add the sugar a little 
at a time, beating constantly. When all the sugar is in and the egg is 
very stiff form into rounds on a paper laid on a board that will fit the 
oven, using a spoon or a pastry bag and tube. Smooth the top with a 
knife. For large meringues use one and one-half tablespoonfuls of the 
mixture. Put the meringues in a cool oven or on the back of the range 
to dry for an hour. When dry scrape out center. Fill large meringues with 
ice cream or whipped cream ; brush edges of small ones with beaten egg- 
whites. Fill with whipped cream and stick the two together. 

Pecan Macaroons 

1 c. pecan meats % c. granulated suoar 

1/4 tsp. salt % c. brown sugar 

1 egg-white 

Dry and chop the pecans and sprinkle with the salt. Beat the egg 
stiff and beat the sugar in gradually, then fold in the pecans. Drop 
the cakes from the tip of a spoon one inch apart on to a buttered baking 
sheet. Bake in a very moderate oven until a delicate brown is secured. 
If the oven is too hot the cakes will spread too much. 

CANDIES 
Pulling Candy 

1 c. corn syrup 1 c. sugar 

2 tbsp. butter 1 tsp. vinegar 
1 tsp. vanilla extract 

Put the syrup and sugar in a deep aluminum saucepan and cook 
over a moderate heat (stirring it just enough to dissolve the sugar) 
until a little dropped in ice water hardens quickh\ Add the other 
ingredients and boil for two minutes. Pour into buttered plates, an<l 
when cool enough to handle, rub the fingers with butter and pull it back 
and forth until it is stiff. Pull into a strip about as thick as the finger 
and cut into inch lengths. Dip the pieces in powdered sugar and wrap 
in oblongs of oiled paper (two by three inches). Why is vinegar added? 



356 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Fniits Glace (Class Recipe Vg) 

2 c, sugar % c. water 

1/4 tsp. cream tartar oranges, strawberries, cherries 

Cook the syrup, adding cream of tartar as directed for fondant, until 
it reaches the crack stage, which is just before the caramel stage. Test 
by dropping a little candy into ice water; if it becomes brittle immediately 
set the saucepan in a pan of cold water. If glace is stirred it will granulate. 
Dip fruit in, one piece at a time, lifting sections of orange with two forks; 
lay fruit on oiled paper. 

Preparing the Fruit. Peel orange, separate sections, and dry. Wash 
sugar from candied cherries, dry, then dip and attach artificial stems. 
Fruits glace can be kept only one day. Dry weather is necessary for making. 

Nuts Glacs 

Use blanched almonds, pecan, or walnut meats, or roasted peanuts 
with the brown skin rubbed oif. Drop into the glace and remove with a 
hat pin. 

Divinity 

3 c. sugar 1 c. nuts 
% c. corn syrup 1 c. water 

1 tsp. vanilla 2 egg-whites 

Boil sugar, water, and syrup together until it spins a thread when 
dropped from the tip of the spoon. Pour one-third of the mixture over 
the well beaten whites of the eggs and beat well. Cook the remainder 
to the crack stage (as in fruits glace). Add it slowly to the egg mixture 
and beat until it begins to cream. Add flavoring and nuts. Turn into 
a buttered platter and cut in squares, or drop from the tip of a spoon 
on to a buttered paper. 

CEEAM 

Frothy Whipped Cream 

Proceed as directed for whipped cream (p. 82), but use a whisk egf!; 
beater and dip the froth into a bowl as it forms. 

CHEESE 

Cottage Cheese 

Proceed as in Experiment IV, page 139, or heat sour milk over hot water 
to 96° F. Cool thoroughly and proceed as in Experiment IV. 



SUPPLEMENTARY EECIPES 357 

If a richer cheese is desired, add cream in the proportion of one cup 
of cream to the curd from one gallon of clabber after curd is pressed. 
Pack in a bowl and keep in a cool place for one hour. Serve in sand- 
wiches, or with salt and pepper, or with cream and sugar as a dessert. 
It may be Feasoned with caraway seed, shredded parsley or olives. 

Cheese Souffle (Class Recipe) 

^ c. milk 2 tbsp. flour 

1 tbsp. finely chopped or grated cheese % tbsp. butter 

spk. of cayenne (or paprika) % an egg 
tiny pinch of salt 

A souffle is a puffed dish — that is, one made light by the expansion of 
tlie air folded in, as in light omelet. 

Rub the milk and flour to a paste and turn into a double boiler. Stir 
until it thickens and cook for five minutes. Add the cheese, salt, and 
cayenne, and cook until the cheese is melted. Remove from the fire. Add 
the butter and the well-beaten yolk of the egg. Cool, and fold in the 
stiffly beaten white. Turn into ramekins or custard cups that have 
been lightly greased with butter. Set the cups in a pan of hot water 
and cook in a moderately hot oven for about twenty minutes, or until 
well puffed and of a delicate golden color. If overcooked the souffle will 
fall. Serve immediately. The souffle may be cooked in a pudding dish. 

Welsh Rarebit 

Ml c. milk % tsp. salt 

1 tbsp. butter a tiny dash of paprika or cay- 

1 egg enne for each service 

1 c. chopped or grated cheese 

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Add butter, cheese, and seasonings, 
and stir until the cheese is melted. (Do not let the water in the lower 
kettle boil.) Add the well-beaten egg. Stir until it thickens, pour over 
toasted crackers, and serve immediately. 

Cheese Bread (A Meat Substitute) 

1 e. bread crumbs 1 c. milk 

1 c. chopped cheese 2 eggs 

% tsp. salt 

Put the cheese, milk, and bread into a baking dish in a warm place 
until the cheese melts without becoming very hot. Then stir well, add salt, 
and beat in two eggs. Bake in a moderate oven for about twenty minutes 
until firm and well puffed. This is a very good way of utilizing stale bread. 



358 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

CHICKEN 
Pan Broiled Chicken 

Only tender, plump chickens are fit for broiling. Clean the chicken 
and split it down the length of the backbone. Make an incision at each 
side of the breastbone, slip the knife alongside of the breastbone and 
remove it, being careful not to gash the flesh or cut through the skin in 
taking out the bone. Heat a steel griddle very hot, grease lightly with 
bacon fat, and lay the chicken on it, flesh side down. Turn frequently, 
leaving the skin side down only a few seconds, as it burns easily. In 
about five minutes after the chicken is thoroughly heated reduce the 
heat and cover the pan wuth a closely fitting plate. Continue turning 
frequently, being careful not to have too great a heat. Chicken burns 
easily and since it must be cooked for at least tw^enty-five minutes, the 
fire must be very moderate. About ten minutes before it is done begin 
basting it lightly with melted butter. Repeat whenever it is turned. 
When the chicken is tender and a delicate brown, remove to a hot plat- 
ter, season with salt, pepper, and two tablespoonfuls of melted butter to 
which one teaspoonful of lemon juice and one teaspoonful of finely shredded 
parsley have been added. Garnish with parsley and slices of lemon. 

Broiled Chicken 

Prepare as for pan broiled chicken, and proceed as for broiled steak 
(p. 165), cooking for twenty-five minutes. Turn the chicken frequently and 
keep the flesh side down the greater part of the time. 

Chicken Pie 

tender 3-lb. chicken 8 slices salt pork 

flour salt 

pepper 2 qts. boiling water 

2 tbsp. butter 1 c. cream or very rich milk (hot) 

Prepare as for stewed chicken (p. 183). When tender add pepper, butter, 
and additional salt if necessary. Set on back of range until crust is ready. 

Crust for Chicl-en Pie. Make a soft biscuit crust, using four times the 
biscuit recipe and making it richer by doubling the shortening. 

Take one-half of the crust and roll into a sheet one-eighth inch thick. 
Select a round pan about four inches deep, line the sides with the paste, 
place the pan on the stove, and turn in the chicken, first removing the 
salt pork. Cut the bits of crust remaining on the board into small pieces 
and drop into the pie. Eoll the remainder of the crust into a sheet one- 
eighth inch thick; lay it over the pan, which should be kept on the stove. 
Trim the* crust into shape, prick with a fork, making an opening an inch 



SUPPLEMENTAEY RECIPES 359 

in diameter in the center of the crust. Put the pie in a hot oven and 
bake for twenty minutes. Then pour in the hot cream. Return it to 
the oven for a few minutes and serve in the pan in which it was cooked. 

Maryland Chicken 

Cut the chicken as for panning, proceed as for breaded mutton chops, 
and cook in a hot oven for twenty minutes or until tender. Baste after 
the first five minutes with melted butter or bacon fat. Use one-fourth 
cup of butter. When cooked pour over it a white sauce and serve. 

Chicken with Rice 

Proceed as for stewed chicken (unless a very fat chicken is used, 
add three slices of salt pork). Put in a large saucepan and cook gently 
until fairly tender. Then measure the liquid and add enough hot water 
to make a quart. Pour it back over the chicken and bring to the boil- 
ing point. Add one tablespoonful of butter, or, if pork is not used, add 
three tablespoonfuls of butter and one cup of well washed rice, and salt to 
taste. Cook for forty minutes and serve. 

COFFEE 

After Dinner Coffee 

For strong black coffee to be served after dinner, use any of tho 
given recipes, taking only half the amount of water. 

Coffee in Quantity 

1 lb. finely ground coffee 7^2 qts. boiling water 

Put the coffee into a cheesecloth bag (9x18 in.) and drop the bag into a 
kettle containing the boiling water. Cover and keep hot on the back of 
range or on radiator of fireless cooker for ten or fifteen minutes accord- 
ing to strength desired. Remove the bag and, if the coffee is too strong, 
dilute with hot water. One pound of coffee serves forty persons. 

CROQUETTES 
E-ice Croquettes with Jelly (Baked) 

Season the rice with butter and salt while hot, adding enough lightly 
beaten egg to moisten. Form into small cakes, making a depression in the 
center of the top. Cook in a quick oven for fifteen minutes, put a spoonful 
of jelly in the center of each, and serve with roast or boiled chicken or tur- 
key; or dip in egg and crumbs (see p. 122) before baking. 



360 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Potato Croquettes 

2 c. mashed potatoes 1 or 2 egg yolks 

% tsp. salt 2 tbsp. butter 

y^ tsp. celery salt 

Beat the eggs slightly and add to the potatoes and seasonings. Add a 
little milk if the potatoes are very dry. Cook in a smooth saucepan, 
stirring constantly until the whole leaves the sides of the pan. When 
cool, shape them, dip in egg and crumbs (see p. 122), and brown in a hot 
oven. 

DESSERTS 

Angel Cake with Strawberries 

Bake angel cake in ring molds, fill the center with sweetened straw- 
berries, and cover with whipped cream. 

Charlotte Russe 

Line china ramekins with strips of sponge cake. Fill the center with 
whipped cream sweetened and tiavored. Use one-fourth cup of light whipped 
cream, whip and fold in one and one-fourth tablespoonfuls of sugar and fif- 
teen drops of vanilla. (Review Whipping Cream, p. 82.) 

Date Pudding 

24 dates 4 egg-whites (beaten stiff) 

^2 c. powdered sugar 1 tsp. lemon juice 

Cover seeded dates with cohl water, cook until soft, and mash through a 
strainer. Cut and fold sugar and date pulp into beaten whites of eggs and 
add lemon juice. Pile lightly in a buttered pudding dish, cover, and set in a 
pan of hot water in a very moderate oven for ten minutes ; then remove cover 
and cook until top is a light brown. Serve with whipped cream or a soft 
custard. 

Rice Pudding with Eggs 

1 c. rice 1 c. sugar 

Vo tsp. salt grating of nutmeg 

2 tbsp. butter 4 eggs 

2 c. boiling water 2 c. milk 

Wash the rice and cook in the boiling water until thick. Add milk, the 
yolks of eggs beaten slightly with the sugar, the salt, and nutmeg, and bake 
as directed for bread pudding. Cover with a meringue made of the whites 
of the eggs and one-fourth cuj) of ])owdered sugar, 



SUPPLEMENTAEY EECIPES 361 

Compare amount of liquid used in pudding with that for boiled rice 
(See p. 124). Compare texture of bread pudding and rice pudding. Which 
is stiff er? Why? 

Individual Plum Pudding 

Ys lb. flour % lb, bread crumbs 

1/^ tsp. salt y2 tsp. nutmeg 

% lb, suet V2 lb, raisins (seeded) 

1/^ lb. currants ^2 lb. pecan meats 

y2 lb. dried figs Vs lb, brown sugar 

Vs glass grape juice Vt lb. candied orange peel 

4 eggs 

Mix flour, crumbs, nutmeg, and salt. Prepare the fruit and nuts as 
directed for fruit cake. Prepare the suet as for steamed pudding. Add 
the fruit and nuts to the flour mixture and moisten with the slightly 
beaten egg and the grape juice. Mold into balls the 'size of a small 
apple and tie tightly in stout squares of heavy white cloth that have been 
buttered and well floured. Drop into boiling water and boil for four 
hours. Kemove the cloth; put each pudding on a dessert plate and gar- 
nish with a wreath of holly leaves, cut from angelica, and a cherry or 
red candies. Serve with hard sauce. The puddings may be kept in a cool 
place for several days. Do not remove the cloth. Eeheat by steaming 
when ready to serve. If preferred the pudding may be steamed in a large 
mold for six hours. 

This puddin 1 is delicious but is rich and indigestible and should not 
be served frequently. 

Apple Dumplings (No. 1) 

1 c. flour 1 tsp. baking powder 

1/4 tsp. salt Vs c. butter 

1 egg V-t c. milk 

6 tart apples % c. water 

Pare the apples and then cut into quarters or thin slices. Place in a 
two-quart pan. Add the water, bring to the boilirg point, and cook 
gently for ten minutes. 

Mix the crust as for biscuit (p. 205), adding the slightly beaten egg to 
the milk. Roll it to fit the pan, lay it over the hot apples, and cut two or 
three gashes to let the steam out. Cover the pan tightly, place an asbes- 
tos mat under it, and cook for thirty minutes. Then brown in a hot oven 
^nd serve with hard sauce. If a steamer is at hand it may be steamed, 



362 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Apple Dumplings (No. 2) 

Use the baking powder biscuit recipe, adding twice the shortening 
given for two cups of flour. This amount will make crust for eight 
dumplings. Eoll the dou;h very thin and cut in squares large enough 
to cover the apples. Pare and core medium-sized tart apples that will 
cook quickly. Put the apple in the center of the square and draw the 
crust up over it, pinching the edges together. Trim off the crust at 
the top, leaving but a single thickness. Put the dumplings in a baking 
pan and cook for twenty-five or thirty minutes or until the apple is ten- 
der. Serve with hard sauce. Open the top of the dumpling and put the 
sauce directly on the apple when serving. 

Peach Shortcake 

Use the crust jiven for apple dumplings No. 1 and bake (do not 
steam). Pull apart and cover with sliced and sweetened peaches, either 
canned or fresh. Serve with cream or with the following sauce. 

Sauce for Shortcake 

1 tbsp. cornstarch 1 c. boiling water 

2 tbsp. butter I/2 c. sugar 
any desired flavoring 1 egg 

Cool a little of the water and mix the starch with it to a paste. 
Add the remainder and bring to the boiling point. Beat the egg until 
well mixed. Add sugar to it, then add it to the hot mixture, stirring 
all the time. Cook in a double boiler until the egg thickens. Add 
butter and flavoring, and serve. 

Grape Juice Sherbet 

6 tbsp. lemon juice 2 c. water 

1% c. sugar 1 egg-white 

2 c. grape juice 

Cook sugar and water together. Cool and proceed as for lemon 
sherbet. 

Orange Ice 

4 c. water grated rind of two oranges 

2 c. sugar % c. lemon juice 

2 c. orange juice 

Proceed as for lemon sherbet. 



SUPPLEMENTARY RECIPES 363 

Peach Ice Cream 

Add one and one-lialf cups of peach pulp, rubbed through a sieve 
and slightly sweetened, to Philadelphia cream. 

Caramel Cream 

To one quart of Philadelphia cream made with only one-half cup of 
sugar add one-fourth cup of caramel syrup. (See Sugar. 3 Freeze to a 
mush, then fold in one cup of Italian meringue. 

Italian Meringue 

1 c. sugar 3 egg-whites 

y.i c. w^ater 

Proceed as for Ornamental Frosting and when stiff cook over hot 
water for three minutes. 

Doughnuts 

% c. sugar 14 tsp. soda 

1 tsp. baking powder iV tsp. salt 

% tsp. cinnamon 1 tbsp. butter 

-/2 c. sour milk 1 egg 

Flour to make a soft dough 

Mix as directed for cookies, using one cup of flour and adding as much 
more as necessary. Roll to a quarter inch in thickness. Cut with a doughnut 
cutter. Fry as directed (p. 228) and drain. 

Doughnuts should rise quickly to the top of the fat and brown on 
one side, then be turned and browned on the other side. If the fat is 
too hot the outside will burn before the doughnuts rise and before the 
center is cooked ; if not hot enough they will be greasy. Doughnuts are 
very indigestible. Estimate the cost of a dozen doughnuts. 

EGGS 

Soft Custard 

A soft custard is most delicate if made with the yolks only. The 
whites may be beaten until light and folded into the hot custard just 
before removing from the fire. Proceed as for cup custard. Return it 
to the double boiler and cook until it coats the spoon. Do not let the 
water underneath boil. Why? Strain through a fine strainer and cool, 
then flavor. Custards are flavored when cool because the flavoring is 
driven off by heat. 



.364 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Scrambled Eggs 

5 eggs Ml tsp. salt 

Ys tsp. white pepper 2 tbs}). butter 

Beat the whites and yolks together slightly with a dover eg'4 beater. 
Add pepper. Melt the butter in a smooth frying pan, and when the pan 
is moderately hot, turn in the eggs. Cook slowly (stirring all the time) 
until creamy and of the desired firmness. Then add salt. Serve on a 
warm dish. One-lialf cup of milk or of cooked tomato may be beaten with 
the eggs, or a tablespoonful of cooked chopped ham may be allowed for 
each egg. 

Shirred Eggs 

Carefully butter shirring dishes or custard cups with melted butter and 
drop an egg into each. Cover with bread crumbs if desired. Set the cups 
in a pan of hot water and cook in a moderately hot oven for eight or 
ten minutes or until firm, but not hard. Sprinkle with salt and a little 
pepper, and pour over each a little melted butter. Serve in the cups. A 
pudding dish may be used to cook several eggs together. This method 
may be varied by turning the egg from the cup on to a round of toast. 
Arrange the toast on a platter and pour around it a thick tomato sauce, 
garnishing with green jieas; or, two tablespoonfuls of White Sauce No. 2 
and a little grated cheese may be placed in cups before eggs are put in. 
Cover the eggs with a little of the sauce and sprinkle lightly with cheese. 
Cover the cups while cooking. Tomato sauce may be used and the cheese 
omitted. 

Stuffed Eggs 

Peel hard cooked eggs and cut in half horizontally or lengthwise. 
Eemove the yolk, mash, and season with salt, pepper, and melted butter. 
Eefill the whites even with sides, and with a damp cloth remove any 
yolk that adheres to edges. Serve with thin slices of boiled ham. For 
picnics wrap each egg in paraflBn paper. 

Goldenrod Eggs 

Cut hard cooked eggs in half, remove the yolks, cut the white in rings, 
and arrange on a large platter. Mash the yolks, season with salt, press 
through a potato ricer over the whites, garnish with parsley, and serve. 

Tried Eggs 

This is the most indigestible way of cooking eggs. If the fat is 
hot enough to make the egg appetizing, the albumin is overcooked. 

Use one tablespoonful of any good fat for each egg, melting the fat in 
an omelet pan. When moderately hot, slij) the egg in and cook until firm. 



SUPPLEMENTAEY EECIPES 365 

Turn if desired. The heat must not be great enough to brown the edges. 
A large quantity of fat may be used, and dii^ped over the egg, which need 
not he turned. 

ETSH 

Broiled Pompano 

Pompano must be broiled wiiole as its delicate flavor is destroyed by 
being split. Clean and dress tlie iish, place in a well-greased broiler, and 
broil over the coals, turning frequently. Be careful not to let it scorch. 
Cook for twenty-five minutes. The broiler may be put over a pan in the 
oven after the fish is thoroughly heated. To carve pomi^ano, the bones 
must be removed. With a sharp knife loosen the fin and slip it out, 
bringing the bone with it. Then beginning at the tail slip a knife up 
the backbone and turn half the "fish back from the bone. Then slij) 
the knife beneath the under side of the bone and slip it out. Cut in 
slices crosswise and f-erve with maitre d 'hotel butter. 

Fried Fish 

Frying is not a hygienic mode of cooking, but it is about the only 
satisfactory method for the small, bony fish, such as perch. Clean the 
fish, retaining the head, fins, and tail. Sprinkle with salt and roll in corn- 
meal. Put a large quantity of fat to heat in a deep kettle over a moderate 
fire before salting the fish. When the fat is hot, put in only a few fish at 
a time so as not to cool it. Turn them frequently until they are cooked to a 
golden brown. Drain on absorbent paper and serve. Large fish may be cut 
in pieces of uniform thickness and fried in this way. 

Broiled Salt Mackerel 

Wash the mackerel and soak over night in enough cold water to cover 
w^ell. If very salt use a large quantity of water. Drain and dry on a 
cloth, and cook in a well-greased broiler under the gas flame for fifteen min- 
utes. Sprinkle with salt if needed. Serve with a little melted butter and 
sliced lemon. 

Salmon Salad 

1 c. canned salmon I/2 c. finely chopped celery 

Mayonnaise enough to moisten a crisp lettuce leaf for each service 

Flake the salmon and sprinkle the celery with lemon juice. Mix 
salmon and celery and moisten with Mayonnaise. Heap it on lettuce 
leaves. Salmon may be seasoned wdth orange or lemon juice and salt 
and served on lettuce leaves. 



366 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

FROSTING 
Caramel Frosting 

2 c. sugar 2 tsp. vanilla 

2 well beaten e.~g whites 1 e. boiling water 

Heat one-half cup of sugar to a rich brown (See Caramel Syrup). Add 
one-half cup of water, and cook to a thick syrup. Add remainder of the 
sugar and water and proceed as for ornamental frosting. 

Orange Frosting 

1 c. sugar % c. orange juice 

1 well-beaten egg-white j^eel of 1 orange (grated or shredded) 

Proceed as for plain frosting, straining syrup over egg through a sieve. 

Chocolate Frosting 

1 c. sugar 1 square of bitter chocolate 
^/4 e. boiling water 1 tsp. vanilla 

2 well-beaten egg-whites 

Melt chocolate in water, add sugar, and proceed as for ornamental 
frosting. 

Fudge Frosting 

1 c. sugar M^ c. milk 

1 square chocolate 2 tbsp. cream 

1 tsp. vanilla or % tsp. cinnamon 

Proceed as for fudge. 

Mocha Frosting 

2 tbsp. butter 9 tbsp. sugar 

2 tsp. cocoa IMj tsp. coffee infusion 

Mix sugar and cocoa. Proceed as for hard sanee, adding coffee a drop 
at a time. It should be of the consistency of moderately firm butter. It 
may be spread on crackers and served with coffee or chocolate. 

FEUITS 
CANNED FRUITS 

Plums. Select firm, well-colored fruit. Wash clean, pack in jars, and 
proceed as for peaches. 

Pears. Choose ripe but not soft fruit. Peel, and cut into quarters or 
halves. Use six tablespoonfuls of sugar to a quart jar. Proceed as for 
peaches, boiling for fifteen minutes after sealing on the first day, and for 
twenty-five minutes on second and third days. 



SUPPLEMENTAEY EECIPES 357 

Hard pears must be cooked in a little water until tender, then canned. 

Huckleberries. Wash and pick from stems. Pack in jars. Proceed as 
for peaches, omitting sugar. Boil for five minutes, seal, then boil for ten 
minutes. Boil for fifteen minutes on second and third days. 

Canned Cherries. Wash firm red cherries and scoop out the pits with 
the loop of a new wire hair pin so as to keep the fruit in shape. Measure 
the fruit and add an equal quantity of sugar. Heat very slowly for half 
an hour, then boil rapidly for five minutes. Seal as directed for other 
fruits. 

HOMINY 

Coarse Hominy 

Use one tablespoonful of butter to four cups of hominy, and cook in a 
fireless cooker. When tender, drain and keep in a cool place until ready to 
use. Then cover with boiling water, heat very hot, drain, and serve with 
cream, or season with butter and salt and serve with broiled ham. 

JELLIES 

Apple Jelly 

Use firm sour apples. Remove a small section from stem and blossom 
ends, cut into quarters or eighths. Put into kettle and add nearly enough 
water to cover. Cook gently until soft. Stir well, rub through a coarse 
sieve, then pour pulp into a jelly bag. When strained add one pound of 
sugar to each pint of juice and finish as directed for plum jelly. 

Cranberry Jeliy 

Select firm berries. Use proportions of berries and water given for 
cranberry sauce (p. 87). Cook for ten minutes, then proceed as for plum 
jelly. Use one cup of sugar for each cup of juice. 

Wild Grape Jelly 

Proceed as for plum jelly, using one pound of sugar to each pint 
of juice. 

Mint Jelly 

Add 14 c. sugar, i/4 tsp. salt, and i/l tsp. paprika to the hot mint 
sauce given on page 377, and pour it over one and one-half tablespoonfuls of 
gelatine soaked in one-fourth cup of cold water, stirring until dissolved. 
Add enough coloring to give a green tint if desired. Pour a part of the 
jelly into the mold. When cool add a few fresh mint leaves, place the mold 
in a pan of ice, and when firm pour in the remaining jelly. 



368 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Vegetable Jelly 

2 c. medium shredded cabbage 2 pimentos, or two green pep- 
1 medium-sized slice of onion pers cut fine 

shredded li c. brown sugar 

14 c. vinegar % tsp. salt 

^2 tsp. celery seed % tsp. mustard seed 

1/4 c. water 1 tsp. granulated gelatin 

Put the gelatin in a small bowl, add the cold water, and set in a 
vessel of hot water to dissolve the gelatin. Mix the vinegar, sugar, and 
seasonings. Add the mixture to the dissolved gelatin, and mix with 
the shredded vegetables. Place a smooth mold in ice water, decorate the 
sides with figures cut from pimentos, dipping the pieces in a little of the 
dissolved gelatin. When firmly attached, put in the vegetable mixture 
and set on ice to harden This may be kept for two days. 

MEAT 
Braised Beef 

2 lbs, of meat from round 2 tbsp. fat salt pork 

2 tbsp. carrot 2 tbsp. turnip 

2 tbsp. onion 2 tl)sp. celery salt 

1 c. soup stock, canned tomatoes, or water 

Chop and mix the vegetables. Reserve three tablespoonfuls for the 
top of the meat, and spread the remainder in a small baking pan that 
can be closely covered. Sprinkle the meat lightly with salt, dredge w'.'Ai 
fiour, and lay it in the pan, and brown well in a quick oven. Add stock 
or tomatoes and peppercorns. Spread on the vegetable mixture, cover 
closely, and cook gently for three hours or until tender. A small pot 
may be used for this instead of the pan. When ready to serve, remove 
the meat and thicken the sauce with a little browned flour if it is not 
thick enough. Add salt to taste. Pour a few spoonfuls of sauce over 
the meat and serve the remainder in the gravy dish. A round steak or 
a thin piece of flank may be spread wath the vegetable mixture, rolled, 
tied, and cooked in the same way. Very slow cooking is essential after 
the meat is seared over, otherwise it wnll be tough. A granite or 
enameled utensil is best for the cooking dish. 

Browned Hash 

Cut cold meat, soup meat, roast, or stew into small cubes. Never 
mince as it is not appetizing when very fine. Use not more than one- 



STTPPLEMENTA-RY IJECIPES 359 

fourth as much fat as lean meat. Measure the fat and meat and add an 
equal quantity of cooked potato (cut into small cubes). Mix and sprinkle 
lightly with salt, add a little onion juice if desired, and moisten with a 
good stock or gravy, or a little milk or cream. Grease a frying pan lib- 
erally with beef or bacon fat, turn the hash in, and smooth the top care- 
fully. Put the pan in a moderately hot place and cook about twenty 
minutes, or until the bottom is nicely browned. 

Beef Balls in Fireless Cooker (Class Recipe) 
A steak from the round may be utilized for this dish. Cut in pieces 
two and one-half inches long and one and one-half inches wide. Chop the 
meat trimmings fine and with it a half inch square of salt pork. (Tliis is 
called "forcemeat.") Add to the chopped meat and pork one-half 
their measure of cracker crumbs rolled and sifted. Season with salt 
and a little onion juice or finely chopped onion. Moisten wath beaten 
egg, mixed with an equal quantity of cold water. Spread the pieces of 
meat with a thin layer of the mixture, taking care not to spread the 
paste to the edge. Roll the strips of meat and fasten with toothpicks. 
Cook a slice of pork in a frying pan. Sprinkle the rolls lightly with 
salt, dredge with flour, and brown quickly in the bacon fat. Lay the 
rolls in the cooker bucket, pour on equal parts of hot water and hot soup 
stock to cover, put lid on closely, and place in the cooker on a hot 
radiator. Cook for three hours. 

Veal Pie (Class Hecipe. Group of Four) 

% tsp. salt 3 tbsp. flour 

2 tbsp. butter or drippings das'i of pepper 

2 lbs. veal from shoulder 

Veal is dense in structure and requires thorough cooking. 

Proceed as for stew, cook until tender, thicken the gravy with the 
flour, add seasoning, and turn into a baking dish, reserving enough of 
the liquid to serve as sauce with the pie. For the crust use the dumpling 
recipe, adding one-fourth cup of shortening (lard or butter, or equal parts of 
each). Mix as directed for biscuit, drop from a spoon on the hot meat, 
and bake for twenty-five minutes in a quick oven. 

Veal Loaf 

2 lbs. veal Ys lb. salt pork 

1/^ tbsp. chopped onion 1% tbsp. green pepper 

4 soda crackers 1 tsp. salt 

Y2 tsp. paprika % tsp. thyme 

2 eggs 3 tbsp. tomato puree 

grated rind of ^4 lemon 3 tbsp. lemon juice 



370 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Put the veal and pork through a chopper, and roll the cracker crumbs 
very fine. Mince the onion and pepper, rejecting the seeds of pepper. 
Add seasonings to the meat, then the cracker crumbs, then eggs, white 
and yolks beaten together. Mix and form into a compact roll of even 
thickness. Lay a slice of salt pork in a baking pan adapted to the size 
of the roll and place the meat on it. Cook in a moderately hot oven 
for two hours, basting every ten minutes with the fat in the pan. The 
loaf may be packed in a mold or large baking powder can and steamed 
for two hours, then baked for one-half hour in a moderately hot oven. 
Serve hot with brown or tomato sauce, or use the loaf cold. Beef or 
mutton may be substituted for A^eal. 

Breaded Mutton Chops Baked (Class Recipe 1 Chop) 



6 chops 


1 egg 


salt 


1 tbsp. milk or water 


1 c. bread crumbs 


pepper 



Trim the chops, removing most of the fat, if very fat. Wipe, then 
sprinkle lightly with salt and pepjjer; dip in egg and crumbs (see 
page 122). Have ready a baking pan of suitable size, rubbed lightly with 
lard or suet. Lay the chops in it and cook in a moderately hot oven 
for twenty or thirty minutes. If the chops are fat, no basting will be 
needed. If basting is necessary, use two tablespoonfuls of melted butter. 
When brown and tender lay on a hot platter and serve with a tomato sauce. 
Veal cutlets may be prepared in the same way. 

Uoast Leg of Lamb 

Eemove the thin dry skin from a leg of lamb and proceed as for 
roast beef. Dredge the bottom of the pan with flour, and set it in a hot 
oven. As soon as the flour browns, add a little hot water to the pan and 
baste the meat with it every fifteen minutes. Cook until tender — about 
one and three-fourths hours being needed for the average-sized leg. 
Make a gravy of the liquid in the pan as for roast beef. Soive with 
mint jelly, or omit the gravy and serve with mint sauce. 

Roast Pork 

Prepare the meat as directed, score the rind in inch slices, and pro- 
ceed as for beef, baking in a moderate oven for three or four hours 
according to size. A double roasting pan is very useful for roasting 
pork. If the oven is too hot, the rind will burn, and the appearance of 
the roast will be spoiled. Serve hot or cold. 



SUPPLEMENTARY RECIPES 37I 

Pork Sausage (Class Recipe) 

In localities where pork is plentiful, a lesson on sausage making will 
be very useful. Much of the sausage in rural districts is not whole- 
somely or palatably seasoned. 

For a class of twenty, at least three pounds of meat, a large dried 
Mexican pepper, and a little finely powdered sage will be needed. Proceed 
as directed for Hamburg steak. Weigh the meat used, measure the pepper, 
salt, and sage. If in a farming district, let the pupils write a recipe, using 
six pounds of meat. Pork sausage served with grits or lye hominy is a dis- 
tinctive Southern dish. 

1 lb. meat a little powdered sage 

14 medium-sized red pepper a little salt 

Cut the meat into strips, sprinkle with the salt, sage, and pepper 
which has been powdered. In preparing the pepper remove the seed 
and dry the remainder in the oven, being careful not to overheat. Tie 
it in a cloth and pound until well powdered. Pass the meat through the 
meat chopper twice, pack in an earthen bowl, and let stand for two or 
three hours, or preferably over night. If wanted for breakfast, the 
sausage should be made the night before. It may be kept for several 
days in a cool place. When ready to cook, mold into small flat cakes 
and cook in pork drippings or lard for twelve minutes. 

Liver and Bacon 

Liver should be clear, not mottled. If the fresh cut surface leaves 
a yellow stain on the hand, it is diseased and not fit for food. 

Cut the liver into slices half an inch thick, cover with boiling water, 
and let stand for five minutes. Drain and dry on a cloth. Remove the 
thin skin and the veins. Broil the bacon in small frying pan, drain off 
the fat, and broil with the liver in the same pan, which should be well 
coated with fat. Cook for five or six minutes, turning often. Sprinkle 
with salt and serve on the platter with the bacon. 

Broiled Ham 

As ham is diflScult to digest, it should be used in moderation. 

Remove any mold that may be on the ham and wipe clean. Take 
off the skin as far back as the ham is to be sliced. Keep the cut surface 
smooth. Cut it thin, and if very salt, cover the slices with warm water 
or with milk for from fifteen to thirty minutes, then drain. Pan broil 
until slightly brown, turning frequently. Drain most of the fat from 
the pan, leaving about four tablespoonfuls. Pour this over the ham, 



372 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

and pour one tablespoonful of boiling water into the pan; shake over the 
fire for a moment, then pour it into the meat dish. A poached egg may 
be 2:)laced on each slice and the dish garnished with parsley. 

Ham Boiled and Baked 

Select a medium-sized fat ham, as the veiy large hams are apt to be 
coarse and the small ones have too much lean meat. Scrub the ham 
very thoroughly with a brush, trimming off the mold if necessary, and 
cutting off the hard skin at the small end. Place the ham in a large 
kettle and cover with cold water. Bring to the boiling point and boil 
for five minutes. Then lower the heat and let simmer for four or five 
hours according to size. During the latter part of the cooking the heat 
must be very gentle or the flesh will be broken. When tender remove 
from the fire, and when partly cool lift from the water. Take off the 
skin except for a small section near the small end. Press cloves in an 
inch apart, rub wdth brown sugar, and cover with fine cracker crumbs. 
Bake in a very slow oven for an hour, taking care that the crumbs are 
not scorched. Serve cold and cut in very thin slices. 

To keep a ham in shape for carving it is well to saw off the bone 
each time. This can be done without spoiling the flesh if a small sharp 
saw is used. The ham may be serAed warm by putting it in a moderate 
oven for fifteen minutes. 

Hocks and Other Bones 

In boning fresh ham and shoulder, there is usually some flesh left 
on the bones; these bones with the joint above the foot, which is known 
as the hock, are usually salted or pickled, and then served boiled. Use 
the thin j^ieces first as they will dry more quickly than the thick ones. 

Wash the bones in cold water, place them in a deep saucepan or pot, 
and cover with cold w^ater. Bring slowly to the boiling point, and cook 
gently. Cook the thick j)ieces a little longer than the thin ones. Serve 
hot or cold. 

OYSTERS 

Broiled Oysters 

Wash large plump oysters as directed and dry on a soft towel. With 
a silver fork lift each oyster by the tough part and dip into melted 
V»utter, then into fine cracker crumbs seasoned with salt and pepper. 
Lay on a buttered broiler and broil over a hot fire until the edges begin 
to curl, turning frequently. Serve immediately with lemon juice and 
butter. Oysters may be cooked under the gas flame if a very hot pan 
is used. After a few moments under the flame put the pan over a 
burner or on the ly)ttom shelf of a very hot oven. 



SUPPLEMENTARY EECIPES 373 

Oyster Cocktail 

6 small oysters for each 1 tbsp. tomato catsup 

service 1 tsp. shredded celery 

1 drop of tabasco sauce salt 
% tsp. lemon juice 

Pick off all bits of shell and wipe the oysters with a cheesecloth 
wrung out of cold water. Mix the oysters and other ingredients and 
chill thoroughly. Then salt to taste. Serve immediately in cocktail 
glasses or in green pepper shells arranged on cracked ice. 

Scalloped Oysters 

4 c. oysters 2 c. bread crumbs 

% c. butter y^ tsp. salt 

% tsp. cayenne ^ c. milk or liquid from oysters 

Prepare and wash the oysters as for oyster stew. Mix butter, salt, 
and cayenne with bread crumbs. Grease a shallow baking dish with a 
little butter. Put in one-half cup of the bread crumbs, then add half 
the oysters. Cover with a half cup of crumbs, then the remaining 
oysters, then crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven from thirty to forty 
minutes. 

PIE 
Sweet Potato Pie 

2 c. boiled sweet potato % c. sugar 
% c. butter 3 eggs 

i/i tsp. grated nutmeg 

Wash and pare the potatoes. C.ut in half if large. Cook in boiling 
water until soft and mushy. Lift from the water with a skimmer, mash, 
and add salt, sugar, and butter. Beat well and add the egg yolks 
slightly beaten. Line a pie plate with pastry, put on a fluted rim, and 
pour in the mixture. Cook until firm to a rich brown. Put the pie into 
a hot oven and lower the heat after the first ten or fifteen minutes to avoid 
overcooking the filling. Serve hot or cold. Make a meringue of the whites 
as in Cup Custard. 

Pumpkin Pie 

1 c. steamed dry pumpkin 1 c. milk or milk and 
% c. sugar cream 

2 tbsp. butter 2 eggs 

1 tsp. cinnamon 2 tbsp. molasses 

^ tsp. salt % tbsp. ginger 



374 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Eub the pumpkin through a sieve. Add milk, sugar, eggs (slightly 
beaten), spices, salt, molasses, and butter. Beat well and pour into 
patty shells lined with a rich paste. Bake as directed for potato pie and 
do not let the filling boil. This quantity will fill ten shells. 

PRESEEVES 

Apple Butter 

To the pulp and juice remaining from apple jelly add two parts of 
sugar to three of pulp, and a few sticks of cinnamon. Cook gently 
until a glaze forms on the surface when tested as directed for jelly. Seal 
while hot. 

Fig Preserves 

Wash and peel the figs. Weigh, allowing one-half pound of sugar 
for each pound of figs. Cover the figs with sugar and let stand for 
several hours, then cook gently for about three hours until tender and 
clear. Then seal. Allow one lemon for each gallon of figs. 

Tomato Preserves 

Peel the tomatoes and remove the tough core. Weigh, allowing one 
pound of sugar to each pound of fruit, and one lemon (sliced) and four 
one-inch pieces of ginger to each gallon of tomatoes. Put the tomatoes 
into a preserving kettle and add the sugar, lemon, and ginger. Cook 
gently until thick and clear. Seal immediately. 

Watermelon Rind Preserves 

Pare the rind and cut it into strips two inches wide and three inches 
long, removing all the pink part. Cover with cold water and bring to the 
boiling point. Cook gently for ten minutes, drain, then weigh and use 
a pound of sugar to each pound of rind. Make a syrup of the sugar 
and use a half cup of water to each pound of sugar. Boil this for ten 
minutes, then add the rind and cook until all is tender and clear. Pack 
in sterilized jars, fill with the hot syrup, and seal. 

PUNCH 
Caterer's Punch 

5 doz. medium-sized lemons 1 pt. fresh or canned cherries 
3 qt. cans sliced pineapple 6 pts. sugar 

6 qts, iced Apollinaris water yellow rind of i._. doz. oranges 
6 pts. water yellow rind of ^L- doz. lemons 
5 doz, medium -sized orangea 



SUPPLEMENTARY RECIPEiS 375 

Grate or peel off in very thin slices orange and lemon rind. Put 
both into a saucepan. Add water and sugar and boil for ten minutes. 
Strain and cool. Squeeze oranges and lemons, and strain through 
cheesecloth. Add cherries, cut in half (fresh ones must be stoned) ; add 
pineapple, cut in cubes and aired for one-half hour. Then add cooled 
syrujD. Put into a stone jar, and pack in ice. An ice cream freezer or 
fireless cooker will be very good for packing it. When ready to serve, 
turn into a punch bowl and add Apollinaris water. 

SALADS 

Sliced Cucumber Salad 

Cucumbers must be very fresh and tender. Pare them, removing a 
thin slice from each end. Drop into ice water for a short time. When 
ready to serve, dry and cut into thin slices. Serve with French dressing 
(see Fats) or with salt and vinegar. Serve the dressing separately. 

Grape Fruit Salad 

Cut fruit in half. Remove the sections of pulp with a knife. Drain 
and arrange on lettuce leaves. Cover with French dressing (see Fats). 
Serve with broiled fish. 

Tomato and Pineapple Salad 

Peel the tomatoes, remove a slice from the stem end, and take out 
the seed. Fill the cavity with finely chopped celery, pecan, or walnut 
meats, and canned pineapple chopped and drained. Then arrange on a 
lettuce leaf, cover with Mayonnaise (see Fats), and serve as a salad. 

A Delicious Dressing for Fruit Salads 

4 egg yolks 4 tbsp. tarragon vinegar 

1 tbsp. mustard 1 tsp. salt 

1 tsp. sugar 1 drop vanilla 

1 e. thick cream 

Proceed as for cooked dressing. Cook until thick. Keep in a cool 
place over night. Add vanilla and cream, and whip until stiff. 

SANDWICHES 

Sweet Sandwiches 

For sweet sandwiches use a paste made by grinding clean dried 
fruits and nuts in the food chopper. Moisten with syrup or lemon juice 
and spread between buttered bread, Dates, figs, raisinsj d^nd roaste<i 



376 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

peanuts with the brown skins removed, blanched almonds, and walnuts 
are all good. A little firm preserve such as pear or quince may be drained 
and dried in a slow oven, then sliced and sprinkled with nuts. 

Ham Sandwiches 

Grind ono cup of boiled ham through the meat chopper, add one-third 
cup softened butter, rub to a paste, and spread between thin slices of 
bread. 

Hot Meat Sandwiches 

Place a slice of reheated or freshly roasted meat on a slice of crisp 
toast and pour over it a little gravy or white sauce. Lay another slice 
of toast upon it, and pour on more gravy. White sauce is used for chicken 
and other white meats. 

Lettuce Sandwiches 

Prepare the lettuce as for salad. Lay a crisp leaf on a triangle of 
buttered bread, and cover with Mayonnaise. Sprinkle on a few nuts, 
and lay on another slice, letting the edges of the lettuce show at the sides. 

Bread and Butter Rolls 

Eemove the crust from a warm loaf of fine grained bread, and cut into 
thin slices. Spread with softened butter. Roll and tie with a tiny ribbon. 

Aviation Sandwiches 

Combine a piece of dough from nut and date bread with a piece 
of white bread dough, so that the finished loaf will be varied in color. 
Bake in a long loaf, cut in rounds, using a filling of cottage cheese moist- 
ened with cream, and chopped olives. Season with salt. 

Pimento Sandwiches 

Cook white bread in a pound baking powder can. Slice thin, butter, 
and cover with narrow slices of pimento. Moisten with a little Mayon- 
naise and lay another round over it. 

Salad EoUs 

Remove a round from the top of small rolls, fill with minced chicken 
highly seasoned, and moistened with a rich sauce. Replace the lid and 
serve in a shallow basket on a soft doily. 



SUPPLEMENTARY EECIPES 377 

Biscuit Sandwiches 

Split and butter biscuit and spread with minced ham or chicken. 

Brown Bread Sandwiches 

Cut the bread, trim, and butter. Then fill with nut and fruit paste. 

SAUCE 

Mint Sauce 

% c. chopped mint leaves 2 tbsp. sugar 1 c. vinegar 

Heat the vinegar and sugar in a double boiler, stirring well so that 
sugar is dissolved. Add mint and let stand in a warm place for half 
an hour. Strain, add a little salt if desired, and serve in a gravy dish. 

SOUPS 
Cream of Celery Soup 

2 c. white stock 1 slice onion 

2 c. scalded milk 2 tbsp. butter 

3 c. celery cut in short lengths 3 tbsp. flour 
1 c. cream salt to taste 

Cover the celery with boiling water and cook for ten minutes. Drain 
and cover with the stock. Cook until tender, then proceed as for pea 
soup, adding cream last. Reheat in double boiler if needed. Milk may 
be used instead of cream, one tablespoonful of butter being added. 

Tomato Soup 

4 c. tomato 2 c. water 

1 slice onion % bay leaf 

2 tbsp. chopped celery 2 tbsp. butter 

(or 1 tsp. celery seed) 3 tbsp. cold water 

3 tbsp. cornstarch 

Cook water, vegetables, and bay leaf over a moderate heat until tender, 
then rub through a sieve. Add the cornstarch mixed with the cold water. 
Cook until transparent and then add salt and butter. Beat with a dover 
egg beater. Serve hot with croutons. 

Cream of Potato Soup 

Mix one cup of hot thin white sauce with one cup of w^ell mashed 
hot potato. Season with salt and a few drops of onion juice. 



378 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Noodle Soup 

1 qt. stock 1/4 c. noodles 

Macaroni, rice, or vermicelli may be used instead of noodles. Let 
simmer until tender. 

Lima Bean Soup 

2 c. dried beans 6 c. cold water 

1 tbsp. chopped onion 1 tbsp. chopped carrot 

1 c. scalded milk 2 tbsf). Hour 

^/4 c. butter ^4 tsp. white pepper 

salt to taste 

Wash the beans and soak over night. Cover with cold water, add 
onion and carrot, and cook until the beans are tender. Eub through a 
sieve, then proceed as for cream of pea soup. 

STUFFINGS 

Oyster Stuffing 

1 pt. oysters % e. bread crumbs 

1/2 c. butter i/u tsji. onion juice 

salt to taste 

Eemove the bits of shell from the oysters and wash well, using very 
little water. Drain, add bread crumbs, butter, and seasoning. If a very 
soft stuffing is desired moisten with w^ater or rich milk. A large gobbler 
will require tw^o quarts of stuffing. 

Chestnut Stuffing 

1 qt. large chestnuts 1 tsp. salt 

1/4 tsp. white pepper 3 tbsp. butter 

Shell and blanch the chestnuts, cover with boiling w^ater, and cook 
slowly until tender. Drain, rub through a colander, then add salt, pep- 
i)er, and butter (melted). 

TEA 

Iced Tea 

Make as directed for hot tea, using twice the quantity of tea. Pour 
directly into a glass qne-third full of ice and serve inmiediately. If the tea 
is to be kept, drain it from the leaves after three minutes. A few clean 
crisp mint leaves may be put into the glass before pouring in the tea. 



SUPPLEMENTABY EECIPES 379 

VEGETABLES (CANNED) 

Corn with Tomatoes 

Use one-third corn and two-thirds tomatoes. Add one-fourth tea- 
spoonful of salt to each pint. Pack tightly in jars, fill with tomato 
juice, and then proceed as for canned corn. 

Canned Tomatoes 

Select firm, ripe, dark red tomatoes. Put them into a sack or a wire 
basket and immerse in boiling water for one minute. Drain, peel, cut 
out all hard or imperfect parts, pack in jars, and proceed as for corn, 
boiling for ten minutes. Seal. Then boil for twenty minutes more. 
Boil for thirty minutes on each of two succeeding days; or cut tomatoes 
in pieces, boil in a kettle until tender and quite thick, fill hot sterilized 
jars, and seal immediately. Tomatoes, being very acid, are easily kept. 

Okra 

Wash tender okra pods cut into short pieces. Proceed as for beans. 

Okra and Tomatoes 

Prepare each vegetable as directed. Use one part okra and two 
parts tomato pulp. Proceed as for vegetables. 

Mixture for Soup 

To a pint of okra and tomatoes add one medium-sized carrot scraped 
and cut into thin slices, and one sprig of parsley. Proceed as for mixed 
vegetables. Any other pleasing combination of vegetables may be made. 
The flavor of onion is impaired by heat and it is well to add it when 
making soup. 

Sweet Potatoes 

Boil the potatoes until the skin will peel off easily, and cut into 
cubes. Pack tightly in jars. Add one-fourth teaspoonful of salt and one 
tablespoonful of sugar to each pint. Fill the jars with cold water and 
proceed as directed. 

Pumpkin 

Choose firm sweet pumpkins. Peel, cut into cubes, and cook in a shal- 
low kettle with barely enough water to prevent sticking, until slightly 
tender. Then proceed as for vegetables, or fill jars with cubes before 
cooking. The preliminary cooking removes some of the water, 



380 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Rhubarb 

Select firm, choice stalks. Wash and cut into inch lengths. Pack in 
jars. Add six tablespoonfuls of sugar to each pint. Fill with clean cold 
Avatei and proceed as for canned fruit, boiling for twenty minutes only 
on first day. 

VEGETABLES 

Potatoes Cooked with Roast Beef 

Pare medium-sized potatoes. Cover with boiling water and boil for 
ten minutes. Then drain and put them into the pan with roast beef. 
Bake for forty minutes, basting them with the roast gravy. 

Puffed Potatoes 

Cut a slice from the top of hot baked potatoes, scoop out the pulp, 
and press it through a ricer. For six potatoes use three tablespoonfuls of 
butter, the whites of two eggs, and salt and pepper to taste. Stir in tl:e 
seasoning and add the well-beaten egg; refill but do not pack the shells. 
Stand them in a baking pan, and cook until well puffed. 

Boiled Sweet Potatoes 

In the late summer before potatoes are well ripened they are not 
sweet and sugar may be added. Cook sweet potatoes as directed for boiled 
white potatoes. Pare while hot and cut in half. Sprinkle with sugar (allow- 
ing one-half tablespoonful for each potato), and a little salt. Lay on a 
greased baking pan and brown in a hot oven. A teaspoonful of caramel 
syrup poured over each half will give a pretty color and will improve 
the flavor. Pour a little melted butter (one teaspoonful for each potato) 
over them before serving, or serve with meat gravy. 

Sweet Potato Cakes 

1/4 tsp. salt 3 tbsp. hot milk 

2 c. mashed potato 2 tbsp. butter 

1 tbsp. sugar 

Mash hot boiled potatoes through a ricer. Add the milk and season- 
ings and stir well. Form into small cakes. Lay them on a greased pie 
tin, brush the top with caramel syrup, and cook in a hot oven for fifteen 
or twenty minutes. 

Boiled Turnips 

There are two kinds of turnips, the white and the yellow or rutabaga. 
The latter are more tender and of better flavor than the former. Serve 
them with pork or turkey. 



SUPPLKMENTAKY "RECTPES 381 

Pare and cut them into quarters or slices. Cover with boiling water, 
and cook until tender — from forty-five minutes to three hours. Drain 
and mash if desired and season with butter and salt or cook one slice 
of salt pork with half a do7:en turnips, or serve with white sauce. 

Baked Squash 

Cut in halves, remove seeds and strings, then cut in small pieces 
about two inches square. Lay in a baking pan, sprinkle with salt, and 
pour a half teaspoonful of molasses over each square. Cover and bake 
in a moderate oven until soft, from one to two hours. Remove the cover 
after tlie first lialf hour. 

Kershaw 

Cut the kershaw in half, remove the seeds, and bake in a moder- 
ately hot oven for three hours. Half an hour before serving time sprinkle 
with sugar. When done, spread with butter and a little salt. Cut the sur- 
face with a spoon so the seasoning may enter. Scrape down from the shell. 
Serve in tlie shell with chicken or beef. 

Lima Beans 

1 pt. beans 1 tbsp, flour 

l<> c. cream 1 tsp, butter 

salt to taste 

Lima beans, also called butter beans, have a very delicate flavor 
and must be cooked in as little water as possible. Do not use soda unless 
beans are old or the water is very hard. Shell, wash, and cook as directed 
for string beans. Buy fresh greenish beans or those with unwilted pods, 
if purchased shelled. Do not drain but cook down and use the liquid 
as sauce. Season with cream or butter, never with pork. If preferred, 
season witli butter and omit the cream. 

Black-Eyed Peas 

1 qt. peas 3 c. water 

1 tsp. butter a pinch of soda 

Select well filled peas having rich green shells. Reject all peas with 
black specks, as they may contain the larvae of some insect. Wash 
and cook as directed for string beans, using soda if water is hard. Cook 
liquid down to half a cupful. Add half a cup of thin cream rubbed with a 
tablespoonful of flour and bring to the boiling point. Salt to taste and 
serve, or cook with a slice of salt pork and omit butter and cream. Thicken 
the liquid with flour. 



3g2 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Stewed Corn 

^2 doz. ears of corn 2 tbsp. butter 

1 tsp. sugar salt to taste 

14 e. boiling water 

Husk then score each row down the center with a sharp knife and 
press out the pulp. Melt the butter in a saucepan over a low heat. 
Add the pulp, stirring well for a few moments. Add half a cup of hot 
water and the seasonings. Cook on back of range for ten minutes, or 
stew corn in a double boiler for fifteen minutes, using milk instead of 
water. 

Corn with Tomatoes 

1 pt. stewed tomatoes V2 doz. ears of corn 

2 tbsp. butter - salt to taste 

Put the tomatoes into a smooth saucepan. Add corn prepared as in 
preceding recipe. Cook gently for fifteen minutes. Add seasonings, and 
serve. 

Com Pudding 

2 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. sugar 

2 tbsp. butter 3 eggs 

y^ c. milk 1 pt. canned or fresh corn 

Beat the eggs slightly, rub the flour and milk to a smooth paste, add 
the eggs, then add melted butter and other ingredients. Turn into a 
pudding dish, set it into a pan of hot water, and cook in a moderately 
hot oven until firm. Test as directed for cup custard. Serve as a vegetable 
or for luncheon as a substitute for meat. What ingredients have a meat 
value ? 

Baked Tomatoes 

6 medium-sized tomatoes a little salt 

1/2 c. soft bread crumbs V2 c. cold chopped meat, 

1 tsp. chopped onion beef, chicken, etc. 

2 tbsp. melted butter or 1 tbsp. chopped ham 

fat from meat 1 tsp. chopped green pepper 

Wipe the tomatoes with a damp cloth. Cut around from the top of 
each scoop out the pulp (which may be reserved for tomato sauce), 
sprinkle the inside with salt, invert the tomatoes, and let stand in a 
cool place for an hour. Mix the ingredients, sprinkling li htly with 
salt. Fill the tomatoes, and cook in a quick oven for tw^enty minutes. 
Baste with a little melted butter and serve hot. 



SUPPLEMENTARY IfECIPES 383 

Tomatoes may be stuffed with equal parts of chopped drained pulp 
and cooked rice (or cubes of bread), seasoned with butter and salt and 
a few drops of onion juice. 

Broiled Tomatoes 

Wash and dry the tomatoes, and cut into one-fourth inch slices. Rub 
a hot frying pan lightly with butter, put in the tomatoes, turn frequently 
to prevent burning as the pan must be very hot. Cook until tender — • 
about five minutes. Season with salt and a little melted butter, and 
serve on a hot platter immediately. Serve witli broiled meats. 

Tomatoes with Okra 

1 qt. okra 1 pt. tomatoes 

1 tbsp. butter salt to taste 

Prepare the tomatoes as for stewing. Measure and turn into a smooth 
saucepan. Measure the okra, wash and cut it into rings one-fourth inch 
thick, and add it to the tomatoes, cooking gently until tender, about 
lialf an hour. Add butter and salt, and serve. 

Stuffed Peppers 

6 green peppers 1 c. meat ground in food 

1 c. bread in i/4 iuch cubes chopper 

1 slice onion chopped fine 1 tsp. salt 

1 c. tomato sauce 1 tbsp. melted butter 

Choose plump, unwdlted, light green, sweet peppers. Remove a small 
slice from the stem (the opening must not include the whole top of the 
pepper) and scoop out the seed, cover the peppers with boiling water, and 
let stand for ten minutes; then proceed as for stuffed tomatoes. When 
stuffed, set the peppers in an enameled baking dish. Pour around them 
the sauce and cook for forty-five minutes in a moderately hot oven, 
basting every ten minutes. Serve hot as a meat substitute. Omit the 
sauce if desired and pour a cup of boiling water and a tablespoonful 
of butter into the pan. Peppers may also be stuffed with seasoned bread 
cubes or equal parts of bread and tomatoes or with boiled rice seasoned with 
salt. 

Baked or Broiled Egg Plant 

Pare and cut into one-fourth inch slices, dip a piece of soft paper 
in warmed butter or other fat, and rub each slice lightly with it. Lay 
on a baking sheet and bake until tender and brown — about fifteen 
minutes. Arrange on a warm platter, spread with melted butter, dust 
with salt, and serve immediately. 



384 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Stewed Rhubarb 

1 lb. sugar 1 lb. rhubarb 

Wash the rhubarb tlioroughly, but do not remove the skin. Weigh, 
put in a porcelain saucepan, and pour the sugar over it. Let stand on 
the back of range until sufficient sugar and juice have melted to prevent 
burning; then increase the lieat and let simmer gently until tender. 
Do not stir while cooking, and turn contents of dish out very carefully. 

White Beans with Rice 

Cook the beans as for baked beans, using half the quantity of beans 
and pork and omitting the molasses. When the beans are quite soft, add 
one-half teaspoonful of salt and one cup of rice thoroughly washed. 
Cook for one hour without stirring, so that the rice will remain on top 
y/ithout burning. 

Red Beans or Frijoles 

2 c. beans % lb. salt pork 

1 medium-sized onion % tsp. bicarbonate of soda 

1 qt. cold water 

Prepare the beans as directed above and soak over night. Drain, 
pour the cold water over them, add soda, and bring to the boiling point. 
Add the pork washed and scored, also the onion peeled (it may be sliced, but 
it cannot then be removed before serving). Cover closely and cook 
gently until the beans are soft, from four to six hours. Shortly before 
serving, the gravy may be thickened by mashing a spoonful of the beans 
against the side of the saucepan. Add salt to taste. 

WHEAT 

Cracked Wheat 

Cook wheat as directed for hominy, except that butter is not needed. 
Keep in a cool place and reheat at serving time. Use for breakfast. If 
served with a little rich cream instead of milk, it is very valuable in pre- 
venting constipation. 



EQUIPMENT FOR THE KITCHEN 



Furniture 

Kitchen table covered with enamel, 

glass, or zinc 
Refrigerator 
Fireless cooker 
Towel rack (metal or glass) 
Sink 
Range, gas, oil, or eleetrio cooking 

apparatus for hot weather 
Stool 

Kitchen cabinet (metal preferred) 
Chair 
Clock 

Iron or Steel 

Coal hod 

Shovel 

Poker 

Lid lifter 

Large frying pan 

Covered roasting pan 

Sheet steel biscuit pans 

Food chopper 

Griddle 

Hammer 

Cork screw 

Can opener 

Mattress needle 

Galvanized garbage pail 

Omelet pan 

Sheet steel baking sheet 

Loaf pans for bread (aluminum may 

be used) 
Dover egg beater 
Scales 



C'offee mill (optional) 

Long handled hook for drawing 

pans to edge of oven 
Set of skewers 

Tin 

Block tin steamer, copper bottom 

(optional) 
Biscuit cutter 
Sifter 
Flour bin japanned (not necessary 

if kitchen cabinet is usetl) 
Apple corer 
Grater 
Bread box (japanued) 

Wire 

Soap shaker 
Coarse strainer 
Fine strainer 
Extension strainer 
Whisk egg beater 
Sieve 

Wire potato masher 
Dish drainer 

Aluminum 

Graduated measuring cup, ^2 pint 

Double boiler 

Teakettle 

Flour dredger 

Round tube pan for loaf cake 

Two ten-inch tins for layer cake 

two inches deep 
Colander (enameled ware may be 

used) 



385 



386 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



Pudding mold 

Measuring cujt, 1 quart 

Two saucepans 

Pepper shaker 

MuflSn pans 

Oblong pan for loaf cake 

Two or four perforated pie plates 

Tea strainer (silver preferred) 

Cutlery 

Meat knife 

Long-handled kitchen fork 

Vegetable knife 

Vegetable slieer with wooden frame 

(optional) 
Four silver plated tablespoons 
Long-handled spoon 
Meat fork 
Bread knife 
Spatula 
Cleaver 
Scissors 
Two silver plated teaspoons 

Enameled Ware 

Double boiler (aluminum may be 

used) 
Dish pan 

One pint lipped saucepan 
Coffee pot (aluminum may be used) 
Small funnel 
Large funnel 
Perforated skimmer 
One quart lipped saucepan (larger 

saucepans may be used if family 

is large) 
Two quart Berlin kettle 
Soap dish 
Sink strainer 
Dipper 



Wooden Ware 

Perforated cake spoon 
Bread board 
Pastry brush 
Meat board 
Vegetable brush 

Earthenware 

Bowl, 1 pint 

Bowl, 1 quart 

Bowl, 8 quarts 

Six or twelve custard cups 

Set of bowls or dishes for baking 

Teapot 

Crockery 

Cheap dishes, bowls and plates for 
ice-box, number and size to be 
determined by food to be stored 

Two 2 quart pitchers 

Glassware 

Lemon squeezer 

Glass baking dishes if not too ex- 
pensive 

Glass jars — 1 pint, 1 quart, 1 gallon, 
as may be needed for supplies. If 
kitchen cabinet supplied with 
them is used few are needed 

Graduated measuring cup 

Jelly glasses 

Miscellaneous 

Asbestos mats 
Ice mallet 
Kitchen grindstone 
Manila kitchen paper 
Match safe 
Ice cream freezer 
Paraffin paper 
Twine 



EQUIPMENT 



387 



EQUIPMENT FOR CLEANING AND LAUNDERING 



Cleanixg 

Vacuum cleaner (if possible) 

Oil mop 

Mop handle for scrubbing 

Two zinc pails 

Hemmed dish towels (linen or 

cotton) 
Broom 
Floor brush 
Dust pan 

Hemmed cheesecloth dusters 
Hemmed dishcloths 
Dish mop 

Launderiitg 

Two or more stationary tubs, or zinc 

or enameled portable tubs 
Copper bottomed boiler or large pot 
Wringer 
Two pails, zinc or fiber 



Clothespins with spring (number 

depends on amount of clothes) 
Ironing board with sleeve board 

attached 
Sheet for board 
Pad for board 
Iron holder 
Clothes horse 
Scrubbing brush 
White enameled tub for bluing 
Washing machine (optional) 
Wash board (glass) 
Stick for punching clothes 
Clothesline 
One electric iron or three nickel 

faced irons 
Stand for iron 
Small brush 

Special utensils may be provided 

for making and straining starch if 

the funds permit. 



388 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



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BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Foods and Coolery 

Cost of Food, Kichard ; How We Are Fed, Carpenter ; Food and Cookery 
for the Sick and Convalescent, Fannie Farmer; Chemistry of Cooking and 
Cleaning, Elliot and Richards; Lessons in Proper Feeding of the Family, 
Winifred Gibbs ; (published by New York Association for Improving the 
Poor); Food Analysis and Inspection, Leach; Human Foods, Snyder; Food 
Products of the World, Katherine Green; Food and Dietetics, Hutchinson; 
Principles of Human Nutrition, Jordan; Up-to-Date Waitress, Janet Hill; 
Pure Food, Olsen; The Boston Cooking School Cook Book, Fannie Farmer; 
Home Science Cook Book, Barrows; Practical Cooking and Serving, Hill; 
Food Values, Locke; Laboratory Manual of Dietetics, Eose; Milk and Its 
Products, Wing; Practical Dietetics, Thompson; Cooking for Two, Hill; 
The Fuels of the Household, White; Pure Food Laws (various States); 
City Ordinances Regarding Foods (various cities). 

Sanitation and Hygiene 

The Health of the City, Godfrey; Civics and Health, Allen; Household 
Hygiene, Elliot; Dust and Its Dangers, Prudden ; Home Nursing, Harri- 
son; Till the Doctor Comes, Hope; Home Hygiene and Prevention of Dis- 
ease, Ditman; Bacteria in Relation to Country Life, Lipman ; Sanitation in 
Daily Life, Richards; First Book of Health, Bibb and Hartman; The 
Human Body and Its Enemies, Bibb and Hartman; Practical Hygiene, 
Harrington and Richardson; Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Bailey; 
Rural Hygiene, Ogden; Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds, Conn; Primer of 
Sanitation, Ritchie; Story of Bacteria, Pruddens; Human Mechanism, 
Hough and Sedgwick; Household Bacteriology, Buchanan; House Sanitation, 
Marion Talbot; Principles of Sanitary Science, Sedgewich; Health Code, 
Including Housing Ordinance (various cities). 

Care of Children 

How to Feed Children, Louise Hogan; The Care and Feeding of Chil- 
dren, Holt; Diseases of Infancy and Childhood, Holt; Theory and Practice 
of Infant Feeding, Chapin; Feeding of School Children, Bryant; Infant 
Feeding, Grulee. 

390 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 39I 

Tlie Home and Its Care 

How We Are Sheltered, Carpenter; Care of the House, Clark; The Family 
House, Osborne; How to Build a Home, Moore; Household Management, 
Bertha Terrill ; The House, Brevier ; The Furnishing of a Modest Home, Dan- 
iels; The New Housekeeping, Christine Fredericks; Fundamentals of Farming 
and Farm Life, Kyle and Ellis, The Cost of Living, Eichards; The Cost of 
Shelter, Richards; Modern Household, Talbot and Breckenridge ; Increasing 
Home Efficiency, Bruere: Economic Function of Woman, Devine; First Steps 
in Human Progress, Frederich Starr ; Successful Houses and How to Build 
Them, White ; The Healthful Farm House, Dodd ; Woman 's Share in Prim- 
itive Culture, Mason 

United Stales Bulletins (Department of Agriculture) 

No. 128, Eggs and Tlieii Use as P^od; No. 34, Meats, Composition and 
Cooking; No. 85, Fish as Food; No. 182, Poultry as Food; No. 391, Eco- 
nomical Use of Meat in the Home; No. 203, Canned Fruit, Preserves, and 
Jellies; No. 249, Cereal Breakfast Foods; No. 73, Losses in the Cooking of 
Vegetables; No. 93, Sugar as a Food; No. 112, Bread and the Principles 
of Bread-Making; No, 256, Preparation of Vegetables for the Table: No. 
433, Cabbage; No 298, Food Value of Corn and Corn Products; No. 487, 
Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the Diet; No. 389, Bread and Bread- 
Making; No. 241, Butter Making on the Farm; No. 52, Sugar Beet; No. 198, 
Strawberries; No 220, Tomatoes; No. 213. Raspberries; No. 255, Home 
Vegetable Gardens; No, 359, Canning Vegetables in the Home; No. 121, 
Beans, Peas, and other Legumes as Food; No. 318, Cowpeas; No. 35, 
Potato Culture; No. 324, Sweet Potatoes; No. 483, Thornless Prickly Pear; 
No. 204, Cultivation of Mushrooms; No. 232, Okra; No. 183, Meat on the 
Farm; No. 503, Comb Honey; No. 04, Ducks and Geese; No. 234, Guinea 
Fowl and Its Use as Food; No. 372, Soy Beans; No. 354, Onion Culture; 
No. 363, Use of Milk as Food; No. 413, The Care of Milk and Its Use in 
the Home; No. 175, Home Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape 
Juice; No. 526, Mutton and Its Value in the Diet; No. 332, Nuts and Their 
Uses as Food; No. 417, Rice Culture; No. 142, Principles of Nutrition and 
Nutritive Value of Food; No. 155, How Insects Affect the Health in Rural 
Districts; No. 375, Care of Food in the Home; No. 270, Modern Con- 
veniences on the Farm Home; No. 185, Beautifying the Home Garden; 
No. 463, Sanitary Privy; No. 377, Harmfulness of Headache Mixtures; 
No. 86, Thirty Poisonous Plants; No. 534, Durum Wheat; No. 36, Cotton- 
seed and Its Products; No. 448, Better Grain Sorghum Crops; No. 322, 
Milo as a Dry-Land Crop; No. 565, Cornnieal as a Food and Ways of 
Using It; No. 559, Use of Corn, Kafir and Cowpeas in the Home; No. 552, 
Kafir as a Grain Crop; No. 28, Chemical Composition of American Food 



392 THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 

Materials, Office of Experimental Station, Price, 10 cents; Circular No. 94, 
Free Publications of the Department of Agriculture classified for the Use 
of Teachers; Circular No. 89, Publications of the Office of the Experimental 
Station Eelating to Food and Nutrition of Man. 

Free Bulletins 

Government Bulletins, Washington, D. C. ; Cornell Leaflets, Ithaca, N. Y. ; 
'Minnesota Leaflets, St. Paul, Minn.; Ohio State College, Columbia, 0.; 
State Experimental Stations, (write Washington for a complete list of these 
publications) ; Texas University, Austin, Texas; Texas Agricultural Depart- 
ment, Austin, Texas; Publications of the Consumers' League; Bulletins 
of most State Universities and Agricultural Colleges. 

Food Exhihits 

(Sent free for School Use in Texas on Personal Application) 

Huyler, Cocoa Exhibit, Ining Place, New York City; Walter Baker's 
Chocolate, Dorchester, Mass.; Wheat Exhibit, Washburn & Crosby, Min- 
neapolis, Minn.; Eoyal Baking Powder, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Burnett's Vanilla, 
Burnett Extract Co., Boston, Mass. ; Corn Products, Corn Products Co., 
17 Battery Place, New York; Sample Case of Spices, McCormick & Co., 
105 Concord Street, Baltimore, Md. ; Illustrative Material, Chart of Cow, 
Sheep, etc., The Sheerer Co., 410 West Twenty-seventh Street, New York 
City; "Side of Beef," Illustration, Eichard Webber, New York City; 
Flour and Cereal Exhibit, Hecker Jones, Jewell Milling Co., Produce Ex- 
change, New York City; Eice Exhibit, Eice Association of America, Crowley, 
La. ; Cards illustrating tea, coffee, black pepper, vanilla, nutmeg, cloves, 
A. W. Mumford (Publisher), Chicago, 111. 

Charts 

Langworthy Charts, 12 charts showing composition of foods. Price, 
$1.00, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ; Meat Charts, 
Bureau of Publications, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York 
City; 1 chart 2x3 feet of Animal, Price, $1.00; 1 chart 2x3 feet of Hind 
Quarter, Price, $1.00; 6 photographs of Beef Cuts, Price, 75 cents; Educa- 
tional Food Analysis Set, Price, $16; Analysis of sixteen foods exhibited 
in bottles and representing food principles in one pound of food, Pratt 
Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y, ; Meat Charts, four illustrating beef, mutton^ 
veal, pork. Price,, $10, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., 



INDEX 



Air 

circulation of, 15 
importance of, 15 

moisture and temperature of, 3G, 37 
ventilation, house, 15, 24 
Asparagus, 97 

Baby, the 

bath, giving, ;{04, 305 
care of, general, 302 
clothing for, 303 
diet of, 307 
eyes, ears, teeth, 304 
feeding of 
• according to ages, 311 

bottles for, 309 

intervals between, 308 

length of time for, 309 

manner of, 309 

utensils for, 309 
food for 

amount of, 308 

composition of, 307 

mixing of, 310 

preparation of, 309 

requirements of, caloric, 308 

warming, 310 
powder, formula for, 306 
recipes 

albumin water, 315 

barley water, 314 

beef juice, 315 

gravy, dish, 315 

gruel, flour ball, 314 

gruel, oatmeal, 315 

jelly, oat, 314 

milk, peptonized, 315 

milk, skimmed, 314 

orange juice, 315 

sugar, malt, 314 
second year, diet for, 312 
sleep, 303 
weaning, 311 
weaning, diet for, 312 
Baking powder 

composition of, 196 
home-made, 199 



kinds of, 19S 

residue from, 19S 
Balanced ration, the, 52 
Barley water, 314 
Bathroom 

care of, 35 

fixtures, 24 

floor of, 35 

installation of, 24 
P>eans 

cooking, 102, 103 

food value, 102 

lima, 381 

red, 384 

selecting, 102 

string, 98 

with rice, 384 
Bed, making the, 33, 319 
Bedroom, the 

arrangement for night, 34 

closets, 26 

daily care of, 33 

furnishing, 25 
Beets, boiled, 97 
Beverages, cold 

lemonade, 82 

punch, caterer's, 374 

tea, iced, 37S 
Bibliography 

care of children. 390 

charts, 392 

food exhibits, 392 

food and cookery, 390 

home and its care, 391 

sanitation and hygiene, 390 
Biscuit, 205 

beaten, 349 

dainty, 349 

emergency, 348 

soda, 348 

whole wheat, 349 
Bread 

baking, 216 

composition of, 195 

cutting, 219 

flours, 208, 209 

general rules for making, 213 



398 



394 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



Bread (continued) 

hand test for oven, 201 
leavening. 19.") 
leavening agents 

baking powder, 196, 197, 198 

egg as, 200 
loaves, forming in, 215 
pans, 215 

processes, sponge and short, 214 
putting to rise, 215 
qualities of good. 209 
quick, 199 
recipes for 

coffee cake, 350 

hot cross buns, 349 

muffins and biscuit, 200, 201. 202, 
203, 205, 347 

Parker House rolls, 217 

paste for coffee cake, 350 

sandwiches, 205, 203, 348, 349, 220 

sticks, bread, 349 

Swedish tea bread, 350 
yeast, general rules for making, 213, 
214 
Butter, 143 

churn, care of, 351 
churning, 351, 352 
renovating, 223 
salting, 351 
working. 351 
Buttermilk, 352 

Cabbage, boiled. 09 
Cakes 

composition of, 2-12 

flour for, 242 

ingredients, proportioning of, 243 

oven for, 244 

recipes 

angel, hot water, 249 

cocoa tea, 246 

cream puffs, 247 

cup and layer, 243, 245 

fruit, 353 

i'ruit, cheap, 353 

jelly roll, 249 

layer, 246 

loaf, tender, 353 

loaf, white, 352 

macaroons, pecan, 355 

meringues, 355 

score card for, 244 

sponge, 250 

without butter, 249 



Candy 

composition of, 237 
recipes 

barley sugar, 237 

chocolate for dipping, 239 

creams, chocolate, 239 

creams, nut, 239 

divinity. 356 

fondant, 238 

fruits, glace, 356 

fudge, 238 

mints, cream, 238 

nuts, glac6, 356 

])eanut brittle. 237 
pulling, 355 
syrup, caramel, 237 
temperature for cooking 
Canned mixture for soup. 379 
Canning and preserving 
best jars for, 109 
cooking, single, 110 
cookings, three, 110 
fruit cooked before, 111 
recipes 

cherries, 367 

corn, 111 

corn with tomatoes, 379 

huckleberries, 367 

jelly making, 113 

jelly, wild grape, 367 

marmalade, orange, 113 

okra, 379 

peaches, 110 

pears, 366 

plums, Japanese, 112 

preserves, fig, 374 
tomato, 374 
watermelon rind, 374 

pumpkin, 379 

rhubarb, 380 

string l)eans, 111 

sweet potatoes, 379 

tomatoes, 379 
sterilizing jars for, 112 
two methods of, 108, 109 
Carrots, boiled, 98 
Cauliflower, 99 
Cellar, the 

ventilation of, 24 
Cereals 

browned, 122 
composition of, 116, 120 
cooking, table for, 119 



INDEX 



395 



Cereals (continued) 
cooking 

coarse liominy, ;J67 

cracked wiieat, 384 

directly over fire, 122 

in double boiler, 121 

in tireless cooker. 122 

rice, 124, 359 
food value of, 120 
ready-to-serve, 120 
serving, 120 
steamed, 121 
Chafing dish supper, 289 
Cheese 

composition of, 144 
making, 143 
recipes using 

cheese bread. 357 

cheese souffle, 357 

cheese with white sauce, 145 

cottage cheese, 356 

creamed cheese on toast, 145 

junket, 144 

toasted cheese, 145 

Welsh rarebit, 357 
selecting. 144 

Cheese bread (a meat substitute) 357 

Chicken 

composition of, 147 
cutting up, 180 
dressing, 179, 181 
recipes 

broiled, 358 

fricasseed, 184 

Maryland, 359 

panned, 183 

pie, 359 

roast, 182 

stewed, 183 

stock, 184 
Children, care and feeding of 
baby, the, 301 

bath, giving, 304, 305 

care of, general, 302, 303, 304, 300 

diet of, 307 

feeding, 308, 309, 311, 312 

food, 307, 308 

foods, recipes for, 314. 315 

second year, diet for, 312 

weaning, 311 
older child 

feeding of, 312 

feeding of, 313 



luncheons, school, 

nourishing foods for, 316 
preparation of, 316 
Churn 

barrel, 351 

dash, 351 

care of, 352 
Chocolate 

composition of, 81 

recipe, 82 

selecting, 81 
Coffee 

after dinner, 359 

boiled, 80 

description of, 79 

filtered, SO 

in quantity, 359 

making, 80 

nature of, 79 

selecting, 79 

substitutes for, 80 

where grown, 79 
Cocoa, 81, 82 
Coffee cake, 350 
Cooling cupboard, 24 
Corn 

canned, 111 

green, 100 

pudding, 382 

with tomatoes, 382 
Corn bread 

hot water, 347 

sour milk, 348 
Cottage cheese, 356 
Cream 

churning, 351, 352 
temperature for, 351 

for whipping, 143 

frothy whipped, 350 

gravity, 143 

separator, 143 
Cream puffs, 247 
Croustades, 219 
Croutons, 219 
Custards 

cup custard with meringue, 132 

general proportions for, 132 

table for, 132 

Dampers, 04 
Desserts 
recipes 

iingel cake with strawberries, 360 
charlotte russe, 300 



396 



THE SCIENCE OF ^HOME MAKING 



Desserts (continued) 

dumplings, apple, 361, 302 
shortcakes, 255, 360, 362 
puddings, 251, 252, 253, 254, 360, 
347 
serving, 273, 274 
simple. 251 
Desserts, frozen 

eating of, 260 

freezing, directions for, 260, li61 
ice cream, 262, 263, 363 
water ices, 263, 264, 363 
Desserts, gelatin 
composition of, 257 
cooking, 258 
preparation of, 258 
recipes 

cream, strawberry Bavarian, 259 
cream, strawberry molded with 

jelly, 259 
jelly, lemon, with bananas, 258 
jelly molded with fruit, 258 
to remove from mold, 259 
Digestion 

digestive organs 

movements, functions, and descrip- 
tion, 46, 47, 48, 49, 52 
foods, cleanliness of, 52 
desirability of cooking, 54 
fried, 55 

value of coarse, 54 
hygiene of, 52 

influence of mental state upon. 52 
kidneys, relation of diet to, 55 
ration, the balanced, 52 
Digestive organs 

description and functions, 46 
digestion takes place, how and where, 

48, 49 
movements of, 50 
peptones, 52 

secretion of juices, nature and action, 
51 
Dining room 

arrangement of, 20 
care of, 35 
dishes, 20 
glassware, 20 
size, 20 

silver and cutlery, 21 
table linen, 21 
Dish washing, 58, 59 - 
Divinity, 356 



Doughnuts, 363 

Dumplings for meat stew, 348 

Egg plant, stuffed, 101 
baked or broiled, 383 
Eggs 

beating, stirring, cuttiug, folding, 

131, 132 
composition of, 127 
custards, table for, 132 
food value of, 127 
freshness, test for, 128 
keeping qualities, 129 
preserving, 129 
recipes for 

custard with meringue, 132 

hard cooked, 134 

omelet 

French, 133 
light, 133 
meat, 134 
vegetable, 134 

poached, 130 

scrambled, 363 

shirred, 364 

soft boiled, 130 

soft custard, 363 

stuffed, 364 
Etiquette and serving 
breakfast, serving, 273 
dining room, the, 272 
dinner, serving, 273, 274. 275, 276 
etiquette, rules of, 265 
etiquette, table, rules of, 266, 267 
invitations, dinner, 265 
luncheon, picnic, 2S9, 291 
luncheon, school, 316, 317 
supper or luncheon, serving, 273 
supper, chafing dish, 289 
table, the breakfast, 272 

decorating the, 268, 275 

setting the, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272 
tea, afternoon, 288 

Fats and oils 

adulterants, spoon test for, 224 
care of, 225 
composition of, 222 
cooking, for, 

butter, renovated, 223 

lard, 223 

lard, compound, 223 

oil, cottonseed, 223 

oil, olive, 223 

oleomargarine, 28S 



INDEX 



397 



Fats and oils (continued) 
eniulsification of, 232 
fats 

bacon. 226 

beef, 225 

home-rencitrecl, 225 
food value of, 223 
frying, recipes for 

potatoes, 228 

potatoes, sauted, 228 

meat croquettes, 228 
frying, temperature for, 227 
heat, how affected by, 226 
Jard, making, 225 
nuts, 233, 234 
oil, olive, 223 
oils, salad, 232 
shortening, as, 229, 230 
soap making, 226 
Fireless cooker 
care of, 67 
description, 67 
heat tests for, 68 
heating radiators, 67, 68, 202 
Fish 

canned and preserved, 189 
cleaning, 189 
composition of, 147, 187 
cooking, ways of, 

broiling, 190, 191, 365 

baking, 190, 191 

frying, 365, 191 
food value of, 147, 187 
oysters, opening and cleaning, 189 
recipes for 

codfish balls, 192 

loaf, salmon, 193 

oysters, 193, 188, 373, 372 

salad, salmon 
removing from broiler, 190 
selecting, 188 

pompano, 365 

salt mackerel, 365 
Floor, the 
bathroom, 24 
kitchen, 21 

methods of cleaning. 30, :i3 
preparation of, 16 
Flours 

bleached. 208 
cake, 242 

composition of. 209 
cornmeal, 200 
keeping, 209 



making, process of, 208 
qualities of good bread, 209 
varieties of 

Graham, 208 

pastry, 208, 209 

rye, 208 

white, 208 

whole wheat, 208 
wheat 

composition of, 207 

structure of, 207 
Food 

baby, for the, 310, 311 

classes of, three chief, 40 

cleanliness of, 52 

coarse, 54 

digestion of, 40 

fried, 55 

fuel value of, how determined. 42 

heat value, standard measurement 

of, 42, 43 
kidneys, relation of diet to, 55 
luncheon, the school, 316 
mineral, 41 
packages, in, 297 
protein, proper amount of, 53 
protein, value and injuriousness of, 

53 
pure, 296 

quantity, buying in, 296 
quantity of, 52 
ration, the balanced, 52 
Forcemeat, 369 
Fried foods, 227 
Frosting for cake 
composition of, 237 
recipes for making 

caramel, 366 

chocolate, plain, 240, 366 

fudge, 366 

mocha, 366 

orange, 366 

ornamental. 240 

plain cooked, 239 



uncooked. No. 
uncooked. No. 
Fruits 
apples, 
baked, 86 
butter, 364 
compote, 87 
jelly, 367 
sauce, 87 
uncooked, 85 



240 
240 



398 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



Fruits (continued) 

cranberries, 
sauce, 87 
jam, 88 

canning and preserving, lOS-115 

cocktail, 86 

composition of, 84 

cooked, 86 

dried, 87 

dried, 88 

fresh, selecting, 85 

serving, 85 

uncooked, 85, SO 
Fruits, glace, o50 
Furnishings 

bathroom, 24 

bedroom, 25 

dining room, 20 

kitchen, 22 

living room, 19 

rugs, curtains, pictures, etc., 17 

sick room, the, 319 

Garbage pail, 61 
Gingerbread, soft, 245 
Graham bread, 217, 218 
Grape juice sherbet, 3G2 
Greens, 100 
Griddle cakes, 203 
Gruels, 314, 315 

Hamburg steak, 166 
Home, the 

home maker, the, 13 
purpose of, 13 
Hot cross buns, 349 
House, the 
care of, 30 

cleaning thoroughly, 31, 32, 33 
exposure, 14 
exterior, 14 
furnishing, 17, 18, 19 
garden and shrubbery, 14 
garden, kitchen, 15 
inner finish, 16, 17 
location of, 14 
rooms of 

arrangement, 19. 20 

bathroom, 24, 35 

bedroom, 25, 26, 33, 34, 33, 319 

convenience, 19, 20 

dining room, 20, 21, 35 

kitchen, 21, 22, 23. 24, 58, 59, 60 

living room, 19 

pantry, 20, 24 



vestibule, 19 

ventilation, 15, 24 
stairs of, 26 
walls of, 16 

water supply, 14, 37, 71 
yard, 14, 37 

Ice cream and ices 

composition of, 260, 261 
freezing, directions for, 260, 261 
molding, 262 

mold, removing from, 262 
recipes for making 

caf6 frappe, 264 

caramel, 363 

chocolate, 263 

French, 263 

ice, orange, 362 

peach, 363 

Philadelphia, 262 

plain, 263 

sherbet, grape juice, 264 

sherbet, lemon, 263 

strawberry, 263 
Invalid, care of 
applications, 326 
cookery, 329 
diets, 330, 331, 332 
disinfection, 327. 328 
general, 319-325 
recipes, 332, 333 

Jellies 

jelly bag, 113 
making, 113 

recipes 

apple, 367 

berries, from, 114 

mint, 367 

vegetable, 368 
sealing, 114 
test for, 114 

Kitchen, the 

arrangement of, 21 

care of, 35 

cooling cupboard, 24 

dishwashing, 58, 59 

fire, the, 63 

furnishing, 22 

list of useful rules for. 68, 69 

measuring, directions for, 61, 62 

refrigerator, the, 24 

score card for grocery store, 299 

shelves and hooks, 22 



63 



INDEX 



399 



Kitcht'U (coutinued) 

stoves, kinds and uianageniont of, 

23, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68 
utensils, 23, 60 

Lamps 

care of, 34, 3r» 
selection of. IS. 19 
Laundry, the 
bluing, 338 
cleaning and bleaching 

gasoline and alcohol, 342 

Javelle water, 344 

removing stains, 342 

setting and brightening colors. :\Ai 

silk, 342 
equipment, 335 
furs and woolens, putting awa.v 

cedar chest, the, 344 

moth balls, use of, 344 

oil of cedar, 344 

preparation for, 344 
home, 335 
ironing 

board, convenient type of, 336 

dampening clothes for, 340 

table linen, 340 
Iron, electric, 336 
soap, 337 

soiled clothes, care of, 337 
starch, 339 
starching, 339 
washing 

body linens. 341 

cooking apron, 339 

dish towels, 337 

flannels, 342 

hosiery, 341 

rinsing, 338 

shirtwaists, 341 

table linen, heavy, 340 
Lima beans. 381 

soup, 378 
Living room 

arrangement of, 19 
furnishing, 19 
purpose of. 19 
Luncheon, school 
cold, 316 
hot, 317 
menus for, 317 
putting up, 31-6 
quality of the. 316 
serving. 317 



Macaroni 

composition of, 125 
recipes for cooking- 
boiled, 125 

with cheese, 125 
spaghetti with tomato, 126 

tomato sauce for, 126 
Malt sugar 

Management, household 
accounts, charge, 295 
budget, the, 292, 295 
clothing, 294 
expenses, operating, 29;] 
food, 293 

higher life, the, 294 
housekeeper, duties of, 292 
marketing. 296 
packages, food in. 297 
pure foods, 296 
quantity, buying in, 296 
real saving, 298 

score card for grocery store, 299 
staple supplies, 297 
Measuring 

dry materials, 62 
fats, solid, 62 
liquids, 62 
table for, 62, 63 
Meats 
beef, 154 
care of, 151 

composition of, 147. 149 
cooking, 160 

moderately quick. 159 

quick, 157 

preparation for, 163 

slow, 160 
cuts of, 155 

diagram showing cuts of beef, 156 
diagram showing cuts of beef in de- 
tail, 158 
food value of, 147. 153 
frying, 162 
lamb, 155 
mutton, 154. 170 
pork, 155 

preservation of, 150. 151 
ptomaines, 151 

Pure Food Laws regarding, 152 
recipes for 

broiling 

breakfast bacon. 167 
chops, 167, 165 
ham, 371. 372 



400 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



Meats (continued) 

over coals. 104 
steak 

breaded, 166 
hamburg, 166 
pan broiled, 165 
under gas flame, 165 

beef balls in fireless cooker, 369 

browned hash, 368 

cakes, 176 

casserole of rice and meat, 176 

English hash, 176 

jellied, 176 

liver and bacon, 371 

pork sausage, 371 

reheated beef, 175 

veal pie, 369 
roasting and baking, 167, 168, 169 

beef with potatoes, 169 

gravj', 169 

hocks and other bones. 372 

leg of lamb, 372 

pork, 370 
soups and broths, 173 

clearing stock, 174 

bouillon, 174 

white stock, 174 
stewing and braising 

braised beef, 368 

brown stew with dumplings, 171 

dumplings for stew, 348 

Irish stew, 171 

pot roast, 171 
Menu-making 

afternoon tea, 287 
calorie portions, table of, 278 
coarse foods, 280 
combinations, 281 
common mistakes in, 283 
cost, 282 

decorations, floral, 285, 286 
for comparisons, 282 
holiday, 286 

luncheons, picnic, 287, 289 
luncheons, school, 317 
meals, planning, 279, 280, 281 
supper, chafing dish, 287 
variety in, 281 
writing, 284 
Meringues, 355 
Italian, 363 
Milk 

carrier of disease, 137, 138 
color, 136 



composition of, 136, 139 

condensed and evaporated, 142 

cost and food value compared, 140 

digestion of, 140 

importance of, 136 

keeping, 137 

odor, 137 

Pasteurized, 138 

peptonized, 315 

skim, 141, 314 

sterilized, 138 

taste, 137 

why it sours, 137 
Milk products 

butter, 143 

buttermilk, 352 

cheese, 143, 144 

cheese, recipes for using 144, 356, 357 

cream, 143, 356 

churning, 351 
Milk toast, 351 
Muffins 

light, 203 

cornmeal, 203 

grilled, 216 

Nursing, home 
bed 

changing mattress, 323 

changing sheet with patient in, 
321, 322 

making, 33, 321 

sores, prevention of, 324 
diets, invalid 

liquid, 330 

soft, 330 

soft solid, 330 

convalescent, 330 
diets, invalid special, for 

anemia, 332 

Bright's disease, 332 

nervous indigestion, 331 

tuberculosis, 332 
disinfection of 

clothing, 327 

nurse's hands, 328 

room, 327 
foods prohibited, 330 
infection, precaution against, 326 
meals, planning, 329 
meals, preparation of, 329, 330 
patient 

applications 
cold, 326 



INDEX 



401 



Nursing, home (coutiuued) 

bot, 326 

of dry beat, o2<'> 
bathing, 324, 325 
changing gown of, in l)ed, 
lifting, 323 
medicine, giving, 320 
moving from bed, 320 
poultices, 326 
temperature, taking, 325 

normal, 325 

subnormal, 325 
turning, 328 
recipes 

beef juice, 315 
broth, chicken, 333 
l^rotb, with egg, 333 
(>gg albumin, 315 
t'ggnog. orange, 333 
gruel, arrow-root, 333 
gruel, oatmeal, 332 
white of egg with cream, : 
Nuts, 233, 234 
Nuts, glac6, 356 

Oat JelLv, 314 
Okra, 379 

with tomatoes, 383 
Oleomargarine, 223 
Olive oil, 223 
Onions, boiled, 101 
Oysters 
recipes 

broiled, 372 
cocktail, 373 
scalloped, 373 
stew, 193 
stuffing, 378 
opening and cleaning, 189 

Pan broiled chicken, 358 
I*an broiled steak, 165 
Pantry, the 

arrangement, 20 
location, 20, 24 
I'aste for coffee cake, 351 
Passtry 

composition of, 229 
doughnuts, 363 
making a pie, 230, 231 
recipe for 
apple. 231 
pumpkin, 373 
sweet potato, 234 
shortening for, 230 



Peas, black-eyed, 381 
Poppers, stuffed, 383 
I'eptonlzed milk, 315 
IMctures 
hanging, 18 
selection, 18 
I'ie 

chicken, 358 
pumpkin, 373 
sweet potato, 373 
veal, 369 
Plumbing 

care of, 35, 36 
vUsinfection of fixtures, 36 
systems of, 25 
toilet, of, 24 
Polish, silver, formula for, 59 
Popovers, 200 
Potatoes 

composition of, 89 
recipes, 94 
baked, 95 
boiled, new, 95, 90 
canned sweet, 379 
cream soup, 380 
fried, 228 
mashed, 95 
puffed, 380 
sauted, 229 

sweet potato cakes, 380 
sweet potato pie, 373 
with roast beef, 380 
selecting, 93 
keeping, 94 
Poultry 

composition, table showing, 147 

cutting up, 180 

dressing, 179, 181 

feeding, 178, 179 

recipes, methods of cooking 

chicken, 181, 182, 183, 1S4, 359 
giblet sauce, 183 
guinea fowl, 186 
ducks and geese, 186 
recipes 

stuffing, chestnut, 378 
oyster, 378 
plain bread, 185 
squabs, 187 
turkey, 184, 185 
Protein 

injuriousness of, 52, 53 
proper amount of, 53 
value of, 52, 53 



402 



THE SCIENCE OF HOME MAKING 



Procaines, lol 
Puddings 

caramel bread, 2o'.) 

cottage, 252 

date, 360 

ladividual plum, 2.jG 

peach, 251 

prune, 253 

rice, 253 

wit'i eggs, 3»j0 

suet, steamed, 254 

Yorkshire, 347 
Pulling candy, 355 
Pumpkin 

canned, 379 

pie, 373 
Punch, caterer's, 374 

Refrigerator, 60 

food, arrangement of, GO 
to clean thoroughly, (iO 
Rice 

composition of, 119, 123 
recipes 

boiled, 124 

casserole of, with meat, ITC) 

croquettes, with jelly, .".-"rt 

left-over, 124 

pudding, 253 

steamed, 124 
selecting, 123 
Rooms 

arrangement of, 19, 20 
convenience, 19, 20 
sick room, the, 319 

furnishing, 319 
Rugs 

cleaning of, 32 
selection of, 17 

Salads 

cole slaw, 105 

grape fruit, 375 

lettuce, 104 

potato, 105 

salmon, 865 

sliced cucumber, 375 

tomato, 105 

tomato and piuoapph, 37." 

vegetaI)lo, composition of, 1(i4 

Waldorf. 105 
Salad dressing 

cooked, 105 



French, 233 
fruit salad, for, 375 
Mayonnaise, 233 
simi>le, 105 
Sandwiches 
filling, 220 
kinds 

aviation, 376 

brown bread, 377 

ham, 376 

hot meat, 370 

lettuce, 370 

pimento, 370 

sweet, 375 
wrapping, 220 
Sanitary conditions 
disposal of wastes, 37 
greatest disinfectant, ;^S 
outdoor closet, 37 
plumbing, 14, 24, 25, 35, :;r, 
protection of water supply, •'7 
Sanitation, household 
yeast, mold, bacteria, 

destruction of, 29, 30 

growth and spread of, 2S, 29 

nature of, 28 
Sauces 

caper, 170 
giblet, 1<S3 
hard, 255 
Ilollandaise, 192 
lemon, 252, 191 
pudding, 259, 255 
tomato, for spaghetti, 126 
whipped cream, 252 
white sauce, making, 117 
Score card for gro('(M\v storo. 299 
Serving- 
breakfast, 272 

cereal, 272 

fruit, 85, 272 
dinners, 273 

carving, 27". 

dishes prepared out of doors, 2;>1 

school, 316, 317 

removing courses, 274 
luncheon, picnic, 289, 291 

dishes prepared out of doors, 21)1 

school, 316, 317 
supper, chafing di.-li. 2S9 
tea, afternoon. 2sS 
Shortcakes 
fruit, 255 
individual, 255 



INDEX 



403 



Shortcakes (continued) 
peach, 362 

strawberry with meringiu'. L*r>:. 
Sink, the kitchen, 61 
Soapniaking, 1*20 
Soups 

bouillon, 174 
canned mixture for, ;J79 
celery, cream of, .377 
chicken, 184 
lima bean, 378 
noodle, 378 
potato, cream of, 377 
stock, brown, 173 
chicken, 184 
clearing, 174 
white, 174 
vegetable, cream of, 
Spinach, 100 
Squash, baked, .".M 
Starches 

cereals, composition of, 116, 120 
food value of, 120 
keeping, 121 
ready-to-serve, 120 
recipes for cookini;, 121, 122 
serving, 120 
steam cooked, 121 
table for cooking, 119 
effect of cooking on, 117 
macaroni and other pastes, 125 
composition of, 125 
recipes for cooking, 125, 126 
making white sauce, 117 
rice 

composition of, 123 
cooking, 123, 124 
Stoves 

Blue flame oil, 00 
care of, 64 
coal 

building fire in, 65, 202 
regulating, Go, 202 
dampers, 64 

fireless cooker, the, 67, 68, 202 
gas, 66, 202 

economy of, 66 
to light, 66 
regulating heat for various food^ 

68, 69 
wood 

laying fire, 64 

points in managing, 64 

regulating, 64, 202 



String beans, 98, 111 
Sugar 
candy 

composition of, 237 
recipes, 239, 240, 360 
temperatures for cooking. 237 
composition of, 235 
food value of, 230 
frostings, cake 

composition of, 237 
recipes, 239, 240, 366 
Swedish tea bread, 350 
Sweet potato pie, 373 

Tea 

class recipe, 78 
description of, 70 
iced, 378 
selecting, 77, 78 
where grown, 76, 77 
Toilet, 24 
Tomato 

composition of, 89 
recipes for using 
baked, 382 
broiled, 382 
corn with, 382 
sliced, 105 
soup, 175, 377 
stewed, 101 

tomato and pineapple salad, 375 
with okra, 383 
Turkey 

composition of, 147 
dressing, 179 
recipes 

aspic, in, 185 
minced, 186 
roasting, 184 
stuffing 

chestnut, 378 
oyster, 378 
plain bread, 185 
stuff, how to, 185 
Turnips, boiled, 380 

Vegetables 
asparagus, 97 
beans, 102 
cabbage, 99 

canning, processes of, 111, 379 
carrots, 98 
cauliflower, 99 



404 



THE SCIENCE OF ]}OME MAKING 



Vegetables (contiuued) 
cellulose contained in. !U 
cooking, 91 

corn, 100, 382, r>79, 382 
egg plant, 101, 383 
jelly, 368 
kershaw, 381 
mineral salts, 00 
okra, 101, 379 
onions, 101 

peas, black-eyed, 381 ■ 
peppers, stuffed, 383 
preparation of, 92 
preserving flavor, 91 
salads, 104, 105. 106 
seasoning and serving, 02 
soups, 103, 104 
spinach, 100 
string beans, 98 
turnip, boiled, 380 

Ventilation 

air, importance and circulation of. ir. 
moisture and temperature of, 36, 37 
cellar, of. 15 
bouse, ef, 24 

Waffles, 347 

Walls, the 
ceiling, 16 
color effects, 16 



Water supply 

importance of, 14 

impurities in, 71 

protection of, 37 
Water 

beverage, as a, 71 

boiling point of, 74 

cooking, in, 73 

disease germs, destructiou of, 72 

evaporation of, 75 

bard and soft, 72, 335 

ice, 75 

importance of, 72 

impurities of, 71 
Welsh rarebit, 357 
Whole wheat bread, 349 
Woodwork 

care of, 32 

selection of, 16 

Ynrd 

arrangement of, 14 

care of, 37 
Yeast 

care in handling, 211 

composition of, 210 

compressed, 211 

dry yeast, 212 

growth of plant, 211 

making of yeast bread. 213 

processes described, 214 



